AAVS_13_6_1210-1225

INTRODUCTION

The livestock subsector is among the priority subsectors of the National Development Plan of most sub-Saharan African countries. The supervisory ministries in these respective countries are currently focused on certain main strategic axes of livestock development. These axes are, among others, the improvement of animal production systems, the preservation and improvement of animal health, the security of breeding, the improvement of the conditions for placing animal products on the market, support for policies of ministries (ECOWAS and NEPAD, 2017). However, the region faces persistent challenges from zoonotic diseases, which are transmitted between animals and humans. Zoonoses account for a high proportion of newly identified infectious diseases as well as many existing diseases (FAO, 2018). Bovine zoonoses, in particular, are a major concern due to their impact on both animal productivity and public health but also the close relationship between the breeder and the animals. Despite efforts by international organizations such as the World Health Organization (WHO) and the World Organisation for Animal Health (OIE), the burden of these diseases remains and seems to be exacerbated by factors such as urbanization, climate change, and inadequate healthcare infrastructure (WHO, 2022; FAO, 2019). However, although some reviews and meta-analyses focus on specific zoonoses, no study objectively summarizes the current state of knowledge on all zoonotic diseases still active in sub-Saharan Africa. In order to inform policymakers, researchers, and practitioners for a more effective integrated approach in preserving both animal and public health, it is imperative to conduct an assessment of the bovine zoonoses still prevalent in sub-Saharan Africa, as well as the control strategies employed in recent decade. This review seeks to present an overview of knowledge on bovine zoonoses still active in sub-Saharan Africa. Specifically, it aims to:

summarize the epidemiology of major bovine zoonoses.
assess their impact on human and animal productivity
discuss current control measures and propose integrated strategies for disease management.

Concept and Summary of Bovine Zoonoses in Sub-Saharan Africa

Bovine zoonosis concept, In Veterinary Sciences, a bovine zoonosis is a disease naturally transmissible from cattle to humans and vice versa (WHO, 2022). These diseases are caused by a variety of pathogens, including bacteria, viruses, parasites, and prions. The primary modes of transmission include direct contact, consumption of contaminated food or water, and environmental exposure (Amona et al., 2016; Ranjan and Read, 2016). In cattle breeding, the main zoonoses are, among others, bovine tuberculosis, brucellosis, anthrax, fasciolosis, trypanosomiasis (WHO, 2022; Roelandts, 2023). These zoonoses represent a major public health problem in worldwide due to our close relationship with animals in different contexts (agriculture, domestic animals and the natural environment). Overall, zoonoses can also disrupt the production and trade of animal products for food or other purposes (WHO, 2022).

Summary of Bovine Zoonoses in Sub-Saharan Africa

There are 3 categories of bovine zoonoses in sub-Saharan Africa: bacterial zoonoses, viral zoonoses and parasitic zoonoses.

Bacterial zoonoses: This section provides a descriptive summary of the knowledge on the four bovines bacterial zoonoses still encountered in sub-Saharan Africa. These are brucellosis by Brucella abortus, tuberculosis by Mycobacterium bovis, anthrax by Bacillus anthracis and salmonellosis by Salmonella enterica. The summary covers the names of the zoonoses, the etiological agents, reservoirs, modes of transmission, and clinical diagnosis of these diseases. This information is compiled in Table 1, along with references. In addition, laboratory diagnostic methods and medical treatments used for each of these diseases have been reviewed. For instance, bovine brucellosis is diagnosed by several methods: Blood culture, Serology: ELISA, Rose Bengal (Dean et al., 2013; Kouamé et al., 2015; Amona et al., 2016; Sanogo et al., 2017; Craighead et al., 2018); and for its treatment antibiotics are used: - doxycycline or - trimethoprim/ sulfamethoxazole plus -gentamicin, -streptomycin, or rifampicin (Elelu et al., 2016; Sanogo et al., 2017). With regard to bovine tuberculosis, blood test is widely used (interferon gamma release test which detects a cell-mediated immune response during infection by M. bovis) (Roelandts, 2023). For all forms of tuberculosis, treatment is primarily based on antibiotics which must be administered over long periods of time (several months) and by combining several molecules. It should be noted that the bacteria responsible for tuberculosis can develop resistance to certain antibiotics; which complicates treatments (Acha and Szyfres, 2003; Roelandts, 2023). Anthrax or antrax is detected in samples of blood, spleen or milk for strain isolation, Gram staining and culture, direct immunofluorescence test (DFA) and Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) (Roelandts, 2023) and antibiotics (penicillin, fluoroquinolones) used in the early stage of the disease are effective (Roelandts, 2023). Bovine salmonellosis is detected after isolation and identification of salmonella. Given the multi-resistance of salmonella, an antibiogram is necessary (FAO, 2018; Klous et al., 2016). Oral administration of Colistin is recommended in calves (fight against the multiplication of salmonella in the digestive tract).

Table 1: Summary of bovine bacterial zoonoses in sub-Saharan Africa.

Bovine Brucellosis	Bovine Tuberculosis	Anthrax	Bovine Salmonellosis
Causal Agent
Brucella abortus (a Gram-negative bacterium)	Mycobacterium bovis (Gram-positive)	Bacillus anthracis (Gram-positive)	Salmonella enterica
Reservoirs
Sheep, goats, cows, camels, bison, elk	Cattle, goats, pigs, deer, wild boars, badgers	No animal reservoirs. Spores remain in soil for decades.	Gastrointestinal tract of mammals and birds. Survives long-term in the environment without multiplying.
Transmission
Spread of Brucella during calving, abortions (secretions), and in dairy products (appendix)	Respiratory route, sometimes digestive route (appendix)	Ingestion of Bacillus anthracis spores while grazing on contaminated fields (appendix)	Transmission through water and food contaminated by feces of infected animals (appendix)
Clinical Diagnosis
Flu-like symptoms: fever, fatigue, malaise, or weight loss, abortion	Weakness, anorexia, emaciation, fluctuating fever, intermittent dry cough, diarrhea, significant lymphadenopathy	Severe colic, hemorrhagic diarrhea, muscle tremors, edema (throat, neck, jaw, abdomen), mucosal congestion, high fever, dyspnea, black tarry blood discharge post-mortem	Diarrhea (sometimes hemorrhagic) with fever in adults or calves. Can be sporadic or epidemic.
Laboratory Diagnosis
Blood culture; Serology: ELISA, Rose Bengal test	Blood test: Interferon-gamma release assay (detects cell-mediated immune response to M. bovis)	Blood, spleen, or milk samples for strain isolation; Gram staining, culture, direct immunofluorescence (DFA), PCR	Isolation and identification of Salmonella. Antibiotic susceptibility testing due to multi-drug resistance.
Treatment
Two antibiotics: doxycycline or trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole plus gentamicin, streptomycin, or rifampicin	No specific treatment. Long-term antibiotic therapy (several months) with multiple drugs. Note: Antibiotic resistance complicates treatment	Early-stage antibiotics (penicillins, fluoroquinolones) are effective.	Oral colistin for calves. Symptomatic treatment: antipyretics, analgesics, coagulants, digestive protectants, oral/parenteral rehydration, fluid therapy.
Geographical distribution
Benin- Burkina Faso, Ivory Coast, Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Mali, Niger, Nigeria, Mauritania, Senegal, Togo, Cameroon, Central African Republic, Chad, Republic of the Congo, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Burundi, Djibouti, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Kenya, Madagascar, Malawi, Mozambique, Rwanda, Somalia, Tanzania, Uganda, Zambia, Zimbabwe, South Africa, Botswana, Eswatini, Lesotho, Namibia	Benin- Burkina Faso, Ivory Coast, Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Mali, Niger, Nigeria, Mauritania, Senegal, Togo, Angola, Cameroon, Central African Republic, Chad, Republic of the Congo, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Burundi, Ethiopia, Kenya, Madagascar, Malawi, Mozambique, Rwanda, Somalia, Tanzania, South Sudan, Uganda, Zambia, Zimbabwe, South Africa, Botswana, Eswatini, Lesotho, Namibia	Burkina Faso, Ivory Coast, Mali, Nigeria, Mauritania, Senegal, Cameroon, Chad, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Ethiopia, Kenya, Madagascar, South Sudan, Tanzania, Uganda, Zambia, Zimbabwe, South Africa	Burkina Faso, Ivory Coast, Nigeria, Senegal, Cameroon, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Ethiopia, Kenya, South Sudan, Tanzania, Uganda, Zimbabwe, South Africa
Sources
Dean et al. (2013); Boukary et al. (2014); Sanogo et al. (2015); Craighead et al. (2018)	Acha and Szyfres (2005); Roelandts (2023)	Measure (2019); Roelandts (2023)	Klous et al. (2016); FAO (2018)

Viral zoonosis: In terms of bovine viral zoonosis, only the Rift Valley Fever (RVF) remains indexed in the literature. The Table 2 provides a brief summary of causal agent, tanks, transmission and clinical diagnosis of the RVF. Furthermore, cattle Rift Valley Fever is diagnosed by blood tests (during the illness) or other post-mortem tissue sample

Table 2: Summary of bovine viral zoonosis: Rift valley fever.

Rift Valley Fever

Causal Agent

Phlebovirus sp. (family Bunyaviridae)

Reservoirs

Mosquitoes of genera: Aedes, Anopheles, Culex, Eretmapodites, Mansonia

Transmission

Bite of infected mosquitoes (appendix)

Clinical Diagnosis

Nasal discharge, hypersalivation, anorexia, fatigue, diarrhea

Laboratory Diagnosis

Blood analysis (during illness) or post-mortem tissue sampling: virus isolation via cell culture, RT-PCR, ELISA

Treatment

No FDA-approved treatment. Most cases are mild and self-limiting; no specific treatment established.

Geographical distribution

Burkina Faso, Côte d'Ivoire (Ivory Coast), Mali, Nigeria, Mauritania, Senegal, Cameroon, Chad, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Ethiopia, Kenya, Madagascar, Somalia, South Sudan, Tanzania, Uganda, Zambia, Zimbabwe, South Africa

Sources

Geering et al. (2003); Bezeid (2011)

taken in laboratories: isolation of the virus by cell culture from post-mortem tissues sample taken in laboratories: isolation of the virus by cell culture from post-mortem tissues and by molecular techniques (Reverse Transcription Polymerase Chain Reaction or RT-PCR) or ELISA text: the antibody test using the enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay immunoassay (Geering et al., 2003; Bezeid et al., 2011). For the treatment, there is no FDA-approved treatment for Rift valley Fever for most cases of RVF are mild and self-limiting so specific treatment has not been established (Bezeid et al., 2011).

Parasitic zoonoses: In total, 04 mains parasitic zoonoses of cattle continue to persist in Sub-Saharan Africa. This includes bovines fasciolosis, bovine trypanosomiasis, bovine toxoplasmosis and bovine cysticercosis or bovine ladreria.

Table 3 provides a brief summary of causal agent, tanks, transmission and clinical diagnosis of bovine parasitic zoonoses. In addition to the summary presented in the table, the laboratory diagnostic tests and medical treatments for these diseases are outlined as follows.

For the bovine fasciolosis, the diagnosis is serology and coprology (Assogba et al., 2001; Siama and Nloga, 2018). Its treatment is Rumeil at a chose of 10 mg/kg (Chauvin et al., 2007; Siama and Nloga, 2018).
For the bovine trypanosomiasis, the diagnosis is nematologiy (Boka et al., 2019). Its medical treatment is done with veridium, Trypamidium, samorin (Boka et al., 2019).
For the bovine toxoplasmosis, the diagnosis is PCR on aborted brains and serological diagnosis: carried out on 5 females who has recently aborted, by taking 2 series of blood spaced 15 days apart to see possible seroconversion (Davoust et al., 2015; Maman, 2022). Its treatment is based on anti-folinic: pyrimethamine (Maman, 2022).
For the bovine cysticercosis or bovine ladreria, the diagnosis is coproscopy and search after slaughter, for larval cysts, in classic locations (Takayanagui and Odashima, 2006). Threre is no appropriate treatment of this disease in cattle. However, some antiparasitic can be used: Niclosamide, albendazole, mebendazole, praziquantel can be used (Zoli et al., 2003; Takayanagui and Odashima, 2006).

Epidemiology of Bovine Zoonoses in Sub-Saharan Africa

Epidemiology of bovine bacterial zoonoses in sub-Saharan Africa: Epidemiology of bovine brucellosis: Several epidemiological studies indicate varying prevalence rates of bovine brucellosis across different countries in sub-Saharan Africa. In East Africa, seroprevalence rates in dairy cattle range from 5% up to 22% depending the agroecological zone, herd size and pastoral (breeding) system (Kiiza et al., 2021). Studies estimate a prevalence of 7.6%–20.2% in various cattle populations in west Africa (Ogugua et al., 2018; Alhaji et al., 2016) while Matope et al. (2011) reported prevalence rates ranging between 2.3% and 12.6%, particularly in communal and smallholder dairy farms in southern Africa (Zimbabwe). In South Sudan, prevalence is estimated at 21.3 %, with higher rates in pastoral herds compared to intensively managed dairy farms

Table 3: Summary of bovine parasitic zoonoses in sub-Saharan Africa.

Bovine Fasciolosis	Bovine Trypanosomiasis	Bovine Toxoplasmosis	Bovine Cysticercosis
Causal Agent
Fasciola gigantica, Fasciola hepatica	Trypanosoma vivax, T. congolense, T. brucei, T. rhodesiense, T. gambiense	Toxoplasma gondii	Taenia saginata, Taenia solium
Reservoirs
Water sources for cattle grazing, snails, cattle	Tsetse flies (Glossina palpalis), cattle	Felidae family (cats)	Humans
Transmission
Consumption of forage or vegetation containing metacercariae (appendix)	Bite of tsetse flies in humid areas (appendix)	Transmission via cat saliva (scratches, bites) (appendix)	Grazing areas contaminated by human and pig feces (appendix)
Clinical Diagnosis
Abdominal pain, hepatomegaly, fever, vomiting, diarrhea, urticaria, eosinophilia	Fever, anemia, weight loss, abortion, potentially fatal	Fever, paralysis, inflammation of palatine tonsils, respiratory distress, diarrhea, unilateral blindness	Convulsions, epileptic seizures, edema, visible and palpable subcutaneous nodules
Laboratory Diagnosis
Serology, coprology	Hematology	PCR on aborted brain tissue; serological diagnosis: blood samples from 5 recently aborted females, 15 days apart to detect seroconversion	Coproscopy; post-slaughter detection of larval cysts in typical locations
Treatment
Rumenil® at 10 mg/kg	Veridium, Trypamidium Samorin	Anti-folate treatment: pyrimethamine	No specific treatment for cattle. Dewormers: niclosamide, albendazole, mebendazole, praziquantel
Geographical distribution
Benin, Burkina Faso, Ghana, Guinea, Mali, Niger, Nigeria, Mauritania, Senegal, Togo, Angola, Cameroon, Central African Republic, Chad, Republic of the Congo, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Burundi, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Kenya, Madagascar, Malawi, Mozambique, Rwanda, Somalia, South Sudan, Tanzania, Uganda, Zambia, Zimbabwe, South Africa, Botswana, Eswatini, Lesotho, Namibia	Benin, Burkina Faso, Cape Verde, Ivory Coast, Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Mali, Niger, Nigeria, Mauritania, Senegal, Togo, Angola, Cameroon, Central African Republic, Chad, Republic of the Congo, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Kenya, Madagascar, Mozambique, Somalia, South Sudan, Tanzania, Uganda, Zambia, Zimbabwe, South Africa	Burkina Faso, Ivory Coast, Ghana, Mali, Nigeria, Mauritania, Senegal, Togo, Cameroon, Chad, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Ethiopia, Kenya, Madagascar, South Sudan, Tanzania, Uganda, Zambia, Zimbabwe, South Africa	Benin, Burkina Faso, Ivory Coast, Ghana, Mali, Niger, Nigeria, Mauritania, Senegal, Togo, Cameroon, Chad, Democratic Republic of Congo, Ethiopia, Kenya, Madagascar, South Sudan, Tanzania, Uganda, Zambia, Zimbabwe, South Africa
Sources
Assogba and Youssao (2001); Siama and Nloga (2018)	Boka et al. (2019)	Davoust et al. (2015); Maman et al. (2022)	Zoli et al. (2003); Takayanagui et al. (2006)

(Lita et al., 2024). The variation in prevalence is influenced by factors such as the presence of climatic factors, livestock management practices, and the level of veterinary intervention. Brucella species survive in cool, moist environments, favoring transmission in regions with high humidity. Studies show increased transmission in areas with seasonal rainfall patterns that facilitate Brucella persistence in soil and water sources (Mangen et al., 2002). Additionally, the disease is prevalent in dry savannah and pastoralist zones where cattle graze over extensive areas, increasing exposure risks. The movement of livestock across national borders, as seen in the Sahel and East Africa, facilitates brucellosis transmission and could explain high prevalence rates (for example 30% in Niger) reported in these areas (Adamou, 2008; Kouamé et al., 2015). Transhumant cattle mix with local herds, allowing the disease to spread. Also, Wildlife such as African buffalo (Syncerus caffer) species (antelopes and warthogs) plays a crucial role in maintaining Brucella transmission cycles, particularly in ecosystems where livestock and wild animals interact (mixed grazing areas) (Mengele et al., 2023; Ntivuguruzwa et al., 2020). High herd density (7.6% for small herds versus 23.8% for medium and large herds) and poor hygiene practices (consumption of unpasteurized milk and raw animal products) contribute to the spread of this disease (Kiambi et al., 2020; Amona et al., 2016; Bayang and Ndukum, 2014). Moreover, many countries in Sub-Saharan Africa lack the necessary diagnostic tools and trained personnel to detect and control brucellosis effectively (Ducrotoy et al., 2017).

Epidemiology of bovine tuberculosis: Bovine tuberculosis is endemic in livestock in sub-Saharan Africa. Literature data show that the disease is widely distributed in animal populations in sub-Saharan Africa, but with a highly variable prevalence rate (De Garine Wichatitsky et al., 2013). This pathology is dominant in East Africa, more precisely in Ethiopia (48%), in Uganda (74%) and in West Africa, particularly in Ghana (39%) and Mali (94%) (Sidibé et al., 2003; Addo et al., 2007; Regassa et al., 2010). Agbalaya et al. (2020) reported prevalence range between 7.0% and 25.7%, with abattoir-based studies in Nigeria versus 3.6% in Niger (Boukary et al., 2011). Zambia shows significant prevalence variations, with rates from 7.4% (in 2012) to 39.7% (in 2023), highlighting the ongoing challenges in managing this disease particularly in communal grazing systems (Monde et al., 2023; Munyeme et al., 2012). In central Africa, Kouengoua et al. (2024) reported a 6.8% prevalence in Cameroon with evidence of transmission at the wildlife-livestock-human interface. Higher prevalence is often linked to extensive farming practices, poor biosecurity, and the presence of wildlife reservoirs. For instance, a 2014 study by Awah-Ndukum et al. in the highlands of Cameroon highlighted that husbandry practices and environmental factors significantly influence bTB prevalence. The research suggested that certain farming practices and ecological conditions could facilitate the survival and transmission of Mycobacterium bovis. So, extensive systems facilitate wider spread via grazing and wildlife interactions while intensive dairy farms have higher prevalence rates due to close animal contact (Akinseye et al., 2018). Nomadic herding increases the risk of bTB spread across national borders (Kelly et al., 2022). Slaughtering infected animals without proper inspection facilitates human exposure, especially in informal meat markets (Boukary et al., 2011). This factor is complicated by the lack of advanced diagnostic tools especially in rural areas that delays detection and intervention (Agbalaya et al., 2020). It’s important to underline that wildlife plays a crucial role in BTB transmission, acting as a persistent reservoir. De Garine-Wichatitsky et al. (2013) reported African Buffalo as one of the primary reservoirs, but also warthogs, Antelopes, etc.; their interactions with livestock in protected areas increase transmission risks. Hunting and consumption of infected wildlife pose therefore additional zoonotic risks.

The presence of numerous risk factors for disease transmission and the absence of adequate control measures strongly contribute to the dissemination of M. bovis tuberculosis. sub-Saharan Africa. The prevalence of Bovine Tuberculosis varies significantly from one geographical area to another (depending on the country and region) and within the same geographical area (depending on the breeding systems practiced) (Vordermeier et al., 2012). Extensive livestock farming is very exposed to tuberculosis. These generally concern farms in permanent contact with an uncontrolled environment. In general, extensive breeding practices not only predominate but also hygiene rules are neglected within cattle herds (Faye et al., 2022).

Epidemiology of anthrax: Anthrax, also called anthrax, is enzootic in Senegal and Niger, mainly affecting cattle. In Senegal, it affects the southern half of the country where it poses a real public health problem, causing numerous cases of animal mortality, especially ruminants, as well as human mortality (FAO, 2018). The prevalence reaches 31% in Niger, which is undermined by cursed fields (Roelandts, 2023). Uganda recorded multiple outbreaks between 2017 and 2018 affecting mostly cattle (86%) with confirmed incidence rate of 79.2% and fatality of 66.4% (Omodo et al., 2023) while Nigeria has experienced anthrax outbreaks in livestock recently with sudden death of eight (8) animals (NCDC, 2023). The persistence of anthrax is largely attributed to environmental contamination by long-lived spores, combined with high-risk livestock management practices. High temperatures favor bacterial sporulation, increasing the risk of outbreaks during dry seasons (Aminu et al., 2022). These spores persist in alkaline and calcium-rich soils, creating natural reservoirs (Pittiglio et al., 2022). Heavy rains followed by droughts enhance spore exposure by concentrating spores in water sources and vegetation (Carlson et al., 2019). In addition, livestock management practices as free-range grazing expose cattle to spores, particularly in known anthrax-endemic zones (Mogaji et al., 2024). Improper disposal of infected carcasses contributes to environmental contamination and subsequent outbreaks (Aladejana et al., 2023). While vaccines exist, coverage remains low due to logistical challenges and vaccine hesitancy among farmers (Adesola et al., 2024). Moreover, scavengers and wild herbivores contribute to the environmental spread of spores by feeding on infected carcasses. Human exposure occurs then through handling and consumption of infected wildlife. Culturally, some traditional practices, such as consuming meat from sick or dead animals, elevate zoonotic risks (Ateudjieu et al., 2023).

Epidemiology of bovine salmonellosis: Epidemiologically, a cow having had an abortion linked to salmonellosis is a silent and dangerous factor in the spread of salmonella. This female may excrete salmonella in her uterine secretions for a month after the abortion. On rare occasions, milk may be contaminated (Klous et al., 2016). Bovine salmonellosis is very little documented in sub-Saharan Africa. The majority of work relates to poultry (FAO, 2018). However, some studies report prevalence rates between 7.07% and 9.3% in east Africa with significant antimicrobial resistance observed in isolates from cattle (Tadesse et al., 2024; García-Díez et al., 2024; Asefa et al., 2023). In Nigeria (west Africa), seroprevalence surveys estimate 4.8% of cattle harbor Salmonella spp., particularly in urban abattoirs (15.5%) (Aworh et al., 2024). High animal densities increase direct and indirect transmission risks. Heavy rainfall increases the risk of Salmonella spread through runoff and contaminated drinking water. Lack of proper waste disposal and inadequate hygiene in farms and slaughterhouses contribute to bacterial transmission. Rodents and wild birds as well as wild herbivores act as carriers, contaminating feed and water sources (García-Díez et al., 2024; Tadesse et al., 2024; Aworh et al., 2024; Asefa et al., 2023). Another risk factor is antimicrobial resistance. Overuse and misuse of antibiotics in livestock contribute to the emergence of multidrug-resistant Salmonella strains. Studies in SSA indicate that over 55% of Salmonella isolates show resistance to at least three antibiotic classes (Tadesse et al., 2024).

Epidemiology of a bovine viral zoonosis in sub-Saharan Africa: case of rift valley fever: The risk factors for this fever are often linked to torrential rains, floods, hydraulic developments (Dams, etc.). This explains its presence, its predominance (70%) and its spread around the Rift Valley in Kenya, its main focus. This pathology also extends to Botswana, Angola, Democratic Republic of Congo, Congo, Gabon, Cameroon, Nigeria, Central African Republic, Chad, Niger, Burkina Faso, Mali, Guinea, in Tanzania, Malawi, Uganda, Ethiopia and Somalia. In these countries, prevalence rates are variable, low and well below that of the original household (Diallo et al., 2000; Swanepoel and Coetzer, 2004). The prevalence of RVF in cattle varies across regions due to environmental and ecological differences. Studies have reported seroprevalence rates ranging from 5% to over 60%, depending on the location and outbreak history. For example, a comprehensive seroepidemiological survey conducted in Uganda found an overall Rift Valley fever virus (RVFV) seroprevalence of 6.9% among livestock with higher seroprevalence rate (10.7%) in Cattle (Nyakarahuka et al., 2023). In Tanzania, a cross-sectional study reported a seroprevalence of 5.5% to 22.7%, with variations linked to proximity to wetlands and livestock density (Sumaye et al., 2013). These prevalence estimates indicate that RVF is an ongoing concern for livestock health, with endemic regions experiencing sporadic re-emergence due to favorable climatic conditions and vector population dynamics. Heavy rains and subsequent flooding create ideal breeding conditions for mosquitoes (the primary vectors of RVFV) that maintain the virus in transovarial transmission cycles (Pascoe et al., 2022). Increased mosquito populations lead to heightened transmission risks. Warmer temperatures accelerate viral replication in mosquitoes, while high humidity enhances vector survival, facilitating transmission and outbreaks. For example, Kenya, Tanzania, and Uganda report frequent outbreaks, especially in regions with extensive livestock farming and seasonal flooding (Nyakarahuka et al., 2023; Pyere et al., 2015; Sumaye et al., 2013). In rural and resource-limited settings, inadequate surveillance and vaccination coverage contribute to the persistence of RVFV. Furthermore, unregulated trade routes and the movement of infected cattle across borders often facilitate RVFV spread and cross-border transmission events. Nomadic pastoralists who move livestock in search of pasture and water sources may inadvertently introduce RVFV into previously unaffected areas. RVFV has been detected in Nigeria, Senegal, and Mauritania, often associated with transhumance and trade routes. Additionally, the World Organisation for Animal Health (WOAH) has noted that bans on livestock exports to Gulf States have led to a resurgence of illegal trade in the Horn of Africa region, further exacerbating the risk of RVFV spread (Mosomtai et al., 2023; Mhamadi et al., 2023; Bouslikhane, 2015). In terms of susceptibility, exotic breeds of livestock are much more susceptible to the disease than indigenous breeds (Geering et al., 2003; Leumbe et al., 2015).

Epidemiology of bovine parasitic zoonoses in sub-Saharan Africa: Epidemiology of bovine fasciolosis: The existence of wetlands, or the presence of calcareous soil, are factors favorable to the development of limnaea. As an illustration, in the tropics, especially in central Africa, an overall prevalence of fasciolosis of 28.87% is reported with higher rates in the rainy season (24% to 31.49%) than in the dry season (13 % to 23.81%). Females are more infested than males with respective rates of 29.56% and 24.18% on average. Parasitemia rates increase with the age of cattle, so calves are less parasitized than young people and adults. Butcheries in floodplains have a higher infestation rate than butcheries in other arid, sub-Saharan zones (Jaja et al., 2017; Siama and Nloga, 2018). Such prevalence trends are also reported in southern Africa by Jaja et al. (2017). Overall, central Africa (Cameroon, Central African Republic, etc.) and southern Africa (Zambia, South Africa, etc.) are zones by definition of rain and humidity (Siama and Nloga, 2018). Literature suggests that bovine fasciolosis is an endemic problem in many sub-Saharan African countries, particularly in regions with suitable environmental conditions for intermediate host snails. High rainfall and warm temperatures favor the survival and reproduction of intermediate host snails, particularly Lymnaea spp., which are essential for the fluke’s life cycle (Singleton et al., 2024). Marshy areas and irrigated farmlands create ideal habitats for snail vectors, increasing infection risks for grazing cattle. These snails thrive in slow-moving or stagnant water bodies. Snail populations peak during wet seasons, leading to increased transmission rates. In many rural areas, lack of access to anthelmintic treatments contributes to high infection rates. Many cattle owners do not recognize fasciolosis as a major threat, leading to inadequate control measures (Feucherolles et al., 2021).

Epidemiology of bovine trypanosomiasis: Transhumance is a major epidemiological factor in bovine trypanosomiasis, especially in countries with a strong pastoral vocation such as Niger, Mali and Burkina Faso. The prevalence of trypanosomiasis reaches 40% for these transhumant herds. During transhumance, cattle suffer lesional trauma caused by thorny plants and once in contact with tsetse fly environments, they are infested. The prevalence rate of older cattle is around 41.92%. As a general rule, cattle taken for transhumance are the oldest. Health controls and monitoring are poorly managed in these Sudano-Sahelian countries (Dabis, 2010; Koné et al., 2012; Harouna et al., 2017). Bovine trypanosomiasis remains a significant challenge in many African countries, with prevalence rates varying widely depending on geographical location, vector density, and control measures: 1.38% to 17.15 % in Ethiopia, more than 14% in the Democratic Republic of the Congo; 23.00% in Cameroon with a variation from 10.0% to 37.70% in some endemic zones; 6% in Côte d’Ivoire with variation from 2.99% to 25.28%; 7.54% in Burkina-Faso; 10.8% in Togo (Mekuria et al., 2024; Lokinda et al., 2024; Ekra et al., 2023; Boka et al., 2019; Tchamdja et al., 2017; Leta et al., 2016; Dayo et al., 2010). The presence of Glossina spp determines the geographic spread of trypanosomiasis. Areas with high tsetse fly densities correspond to elevated bovine infection rates Tsetse flies prefer dense vegetation, such as savannahs and riverine forests. Deforestation and land conversion for agriculture can reduce vector density, but also create fragmented habitats that support pockets of infection. (Leta et al., 2016; Mekuria et al., 2024). In West Africa, T. vivax can be transmitted by biting flies such as Stomoxys spp., allowing the disease to persist in areas beyond the tsetse belt (Odeniran et al., 2020). The proximity of cattle to wildlife-inhabited areas increases the risk of cross-species transmission because various wild ungulates, such as African buffalo and antelopes, act as reservoirs for Trypanosoma spp (Mamoudou et al., 2009). Furthermore, many smallholder farmers lack knowledge about the disease, leading to delayed diagnosis and treatment. Poor veterinary screening in cattle markets increases disease transmission through movement of infected animals in unregulated livestock markets. In addition, increasing resistance to trypanocidal drugs such as isometamidium and diminazene, complicating control efforts, has been documented (Degneh et al., 2019).

Epidemiology of Bovine Toxoplasmosis: Bovine toxoplasmosis is a neglected zoonosis and is the subject of very little research. Its prevalence in livestock globally varies from 7.5 to 59.7%. The scraps of information available specifically on this disease in sub-Saharan Africa have been reported by Adewi et al. (2010) and Maman et al. (2022), in Togo. Seroprevalence is higher in females than in males (6.17% vs 4.05%). The IgG rate is higher (16.46%) in the Maritime region than in the other regions (3.85% to 12.94%). Concerning contamination risk factors, data indicate that 95.65% of herds in the maritime region are in permanent contact with cats excreting oocysts. This poses a public health problem for these population. According to Tonouhewa et al. (2017), the prevalence of Toxoplasma gondii infection in cattle ranged from 8% to 17%, with an overall estimated prevalence of 12%. Many regions in sub-Saharan Africa rely on surface water sources, which can be contaminated by oocysts shed by infected felines as these T. gondii oocysts can survive in soil and water. Domestic as well as wild felids are the definitive hosts of T. gondii, shedding millions of oocysts in their feces, which contaminate pastures, water, and feed. In areas where cattle graze near game reserves, interactions with wildlife species, such as rodents and primates, may contribute to disease persistence. Moreover, many cattle producers are unaware of the risks associated with toxoplasmosis, leading to inadequate preventive measures. So free-range cattle are at higher risk of T. gondii exposure due to increased contact with contaminated environments. In many African countries, routine screening for toxoplasmosis in livestock is not commonly practiced, limiting control efforts (Masombuka et al., 2024; Mangena et al., 2023; Tonouhewa et al., 2017).

Epidemiology of Bovine Cysticercosis: The lack of reliable epidemiological data, the high cost of diagnostic means and the lack of knowledge of the disease by the populations concerned mean that the global prevalence of the teniosis /cysticercosis complex is poorly known. Latin America, Africa and Asia are endemic regions because all elements favor the cycle of Taenia cycle solium and T. saginata are united there: significant fecal danger, free-range breeding of pigs, extensive cattle breeding system, access of pigs to human faeces, great human-pig-cattle promiscuity, lack of food and general hygiene, sometimes slaughter domestic or clandestine pigs, cattle and insufficient veterinary control of meat (Mafojane et al., 2003; Yanagida et al., 2010; Bouteille, 2014). However, according to the available data, cysticercosis has been described much more in pigs in West and Central Africa (Ivory Coast, Togo, Mali, Benin, Nigeria, Cameroon, Central African Republic, etc.). Its prevalence varies from 11% to 21% (Roth and Menor, 2003; Yanagida et al., 2010). Furthermore, many rural communities lack proper sanitation facilities, leading to widespread environmental contamination with T. saginata eggs. Many abattoirs in sub-Saharan Africa lack proper meat inspection protocols, allowing infected carcasses to enter the food chain. Infected cattle serve as reservoirs, and human infection occurs when people consume raw or undercooked beef containing Cysticercosis.

Impact of Zoonoses on Animal and Human Productivity

Economic impact of zoonotic diseases in livestock production: Zoonoses cause significant losses in animal production. Zoonotic diseases in sub-Saharan Africa threaten food security by affecting animal health, reducing livestock productivity, and limiting access to safe and nutritious food. Economic losses caused by diseases such as brucellosis, bovine tuberculosis, and Rift Valley fever undermine the livelihoods of livestock farmers and exacerbate food insecurity. Furthermore, the contamination of animal products (milk, meat) with zoonotic pathogens exposes consumers to health risks, limiting their access to essential protein sources. (Grace D et al., 2012; WHO/FAO/OIE, 2006; Havelaar et al., 2015).

A cross-sector analysis is given by Roth et al. (2003), Zoonoses mainly affect herd fertility and reduce milk production. Zoonotic diseases significantly impact livestock production, leading to substantial economic losses. Chronic infections such as bovine tuberculosis (bTB) and brucellosis reduce growth rates, feed efficiency, and overall productivity. Research indicates that bTB alone can cause a 10 to 25% of their productivity including 10–18% decline in milk yield per infected cow (Muhammed et al., 2017). Additionally, reproductive failures, particularly due to Brucella abortus results in abortion rates of 13.8% in affected herds, inflicting severe financial losses on farmers (Megersa et al., 2011).

Beyond productivity losses, zoonotic diseases also affect meat quality and supply. Conditions like bovine cysticercosis (Taenia saginata) and tuberculosis lead to the condemnation of infected carcasses in slaughterhouses, significantly reducing available meat. In Nigeria, for instance, up to 76% of certain muscles of slaughtered bovine were condemned due to bovine cysticercosis (Rabi’u and Jegede, 2010). To combat these issues, farmers face increased veterinary costs, investing heavily in diagnostics, treatments, and vaccination programs.

On a broader economic scale, these diseases impose trade restrictions that further impact livestock markets. Animals from regions with high zoonotic disease prevalence are often devalued due to perceived health risks, leading to reduced market prices. Moreover, international trade barriers limit meat and dairy exports from sub-Saharan Africa, where the disease burden remains high, stifling economic growth in the livestock sector. Despite the lack of economic data, it is clear that countries pay a heavy price for these zoonoses. In a review by Peyre et al. (2015) for example, between 2006 and 2007, RVF alone caused a loss ranging $6.7 million and $421 million to Tanzania and Somalia respectively while the annual losses per household due to bovine trypanosomosis were estimated to $176.4 (Tora and Dana, 2024).

Impact of bovine zoonoses on public health: Bovine zoonotic diseases pose a significant threat to human health, particularly in rural communities of sub-Saharan Africa, where close human-livestock interactions facilitate disease transmission. These infections contribute to foodborne illnesses, occupational hazards, and rising healthcare costs, exacerbating public health challenges in resource-limited settings.

Several bovine zoonoses directly infect humans, often through consumption of contaminated animal products or direct contact with infected livestock. Brucellosis is primarily transmitted through unpasteurized dairy products or handling of infected animals. It affects more than 500,000 people annually worldwide, with sub-Saharan Africa contributing a significant portion of cases (Frean et al., 2018). Similarly, bovine tuberculosis (bTB) can be transmitted via inhalation or consumption of raw dairy products. In Tanzania, up to 16% of human TB cases are linked to bTB (Kazwala et al., 2001). Anthrax is another serious concern which spreads through livestock outbreaks and primarily affects pastoralist communities. For instance, in Kenya, anthrax is the highest-ranked priority zoonotic disease, with an average of 10 outbreaks occurring annually at the human–animal interface Muturi et al. (2018) reported Bacillus anthracis seropositivity of 11.3% among humans, with some regions reporting up to 28% seropositivity while inhalation anthrax can be fatal in up to 85% of cases without treatment (CDC, 2024).

Taeniasis, caused by Taenia saginata, results from consuming undercooked beef infected with bovine cysticercosis and affects million of people. In some countries, cattle seroprevalence rates exceed 10% and correlate with high human infection rates. For instance, a review highlighted prevalence rates ranging from 2.2% to 26.25% in cattle across different areas of the country (Kumar and Tadesse, 2011). Another major concern is Rift Valley Fever (RVF), a viral disease that can cause fever, hemorrhagic complications, and neurological disorders in humans. RVF outbreaks in Kenya and Sudan have resulted in thousands of human cases, alongside significant livestock mortality (Peyre et al., 2015; Hassan et al., 2011).

Beyond direct health consequences, bovine zoonoses impose substantial socioeconomic burdens. The treatment of these infections generates significant healthcare costs, particularly in low-income communities with limited access to medical resources. Additionally, chronic zoonotic diseases contribute to lost workdays and reduced productivity in agricultural and livestock sectors, further straining economic stability.

People Exposed to Risks of Contagion

Zoonotic pathogens can spread to humans through any point of contact with domestic or wild cattle. Markets where beef or buffalo meat is sold have a particularly high risk due to the high number of new or unrecorded pathogens known to exist in wildlife populations (Amona et al., 2016; Klous et al., 2016). Agricultural workers in areas with high antibiotic administration to cattle may be at increased risk of pathogens resistant to current antimicrobial drugs. People living near wild areas or in semi-urban areas with higher numbers of wild animals are at risk of contracting buffalo-borne diseases. Urbanization and the destruction of natural habitats increase the risk of zoonoses by increasing contact between humans and wild animals (Boukary et al., 2014; WHO, 2022).

Control and Prevention Strategies for Bovine Zoonoses

Effective surveillance and monitoring are crucial for controlling zoonotic diseases. Tools like the WHO and FAO Zoonoses Prioritization Tool help African countries identify the most critical zoonoses for targeted interventions (WHO, 2022). Globally, the Global Early Warning System (GLEWS), a collaboration between WHO, FAO, and OIE, tracks emerging zoonotic diseases, including those affecting sub-Saharan Africa (FAO, 2021). In countries like Nigeria and Ethiopia, meat inspection programs have been implemented to detect bovine tuberculosis and cysticercosis in slaughtered animals (Meseko et al., 2021). Regular screening programs for Mycobacterium bovis (bovine tuberculosis) and Brucella abortus (brucellosis) help identify and cull infected animals, reducing disease spread (Mather et al., 2016). Additionally, post-mortem meat inspections at slaughterhouses play a key role in preventing contaminated meat from entering the food chain and posing risks to public health.

Vaccination remains one of the most effective strategies for controlling bovine zoonoses, with WHO, FAO, and OIE supporting various campaigns. Mass vaccination against brucellosis using Brucella abortus S19 and RB51 vaccines has helped control infections in endemic regions (Lubroth et al., 2007; Barrett et al., 2022). For Rift Valley Fever (RVF), emergency vaccination campaigns, such as the 2018 outbreak response in Kenya, have been coordinated to prevent widespread transmission (Mwacalimba et al., 2025). Similarly, periodic livestock vaccinations in Uganda and Zambia have significantly reduced anthrax outbreaks (Mudenda et al., 2023). Despite their effectiveness, vaccination programs face several challenges, including inadequate cold chain infrastructure in remote areas, low farmer participation due to financial constraints and lack of awareness, and political instability that disrupts vaccination efforts.

The misuse of antibiotics in livestock farming has contributed to the rise of antimicrobial resistance (AMR), making zoonotic disease treatment increasingly difficult. Unregulated antimicrobial use for disease prevention and growth promotion has accelerated resistance, prompting organizations like the FAO to implement an Action Plan on AMR, promoting responsible antibiotic use in livestock (FAO, 2016). The WHO’s Global Action Plan on AMR has also helped establish surveillance programs in African countries like Tanzania and South Africa (Elton et al., 2020). Some nations are exploring alternative strategies, such as probiotics and herbal remedies, to reduce antibiotic dependence in livestock (Arsene et al., 2021). However, many farmers continue to self-administer antibiotics without proper veterinary oversight, further exacerbating AMR and complicating zoonotic disease control (Mather et al., 2016).

The One Health approach integrates human, animal, and environmental health to effectively combat zoonotic diseases. Strengthening collaboration between veterinary and human health sectors is a key focus of the FAO-OIE-WHO Tripartite partnership. Public education and awareness campaigns have played an essential role in disease prevention, such as those in Nigeria, where initiatives promoting milk pasteurization have helped reduce human brucellosis cases (Meseko et al., 2021). Improving sanitation and waste management is also important; WHO-supported clean water projects in pastoral communities have helped reduce the spread of Taenia saginata (Anyango et al., 2023). Enforcing food safety regulations, including milk pasteurization and thorough meat inspections, enhances consumer protection against zoonotic infections. Additionally, controlled animal movement through quarantine measures helps prevent the cross-border spread of diseases, safeguarding both livestock and human populations.

Recommendations for Strengthening Zoonotic Disease Control

To enhance the control and prevention of bovine zoonoses in sub-Saharan Africa, a combination of policy interventions and practical solutions is essential. Expanding vaccination coverage is a critical step, requiring increased investment in thermostable vaccines that can be easily distributed to remote areas. Strengthening antimicrobial resistance (AMR) policies is also necessary by enforcing strict regulations on antibiotic use in livestock and promoting alternative disease control strategies such as improved biosecurity. Additionally, improving disease surveillance through the use of digital reporting systems can enable real-time tracking of zoonotic outbreaks, facilitating faster responses and containment measures.

Strengthening veterinary services and disease surveillance is fundamental to effective zoonotic disease control. Expanding disease reporting systems and enhancing laboratory diagnostic capacities will improve early detection and response. Coordination between veterinary and public health authorities should be reinforced to ensure a unified approach to disease prevention. Vaccination programs also require significant improvement, with greater investment in vaccine research and local production. The development of thermostable vaccines that do not require refrigeration would further increase accessibility and effectiveness, especially in rural areas where cold chain infrastructure is limited.

Promoting responsible antibiotic use is another crucial measure in mitigating zoonotic risks. Regulations on antimicrobial use in livestock must be strictly enforced to curb the rise of antimicrobial resistance. Alternative disease control strategies, such as improved farm biosecurity, should be encouraged to reduce reliance on antibiotics. Additionally, improving public health measures can significantly reduce zoonotic transmission. Expanding educational campaigns on food safety and hygiene will increase awareness among farmers and consumers. Strengthening meat inspection protocols and enforcing food safety laws will further ensure that contaminated animal products do not enter the human food chain.

Enhancing public-private partnerships is vital in securing the necessary funding and resources for zoonotic disease control programs. Collaboration with non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and private sector stakeholders can support large-scale vaccination campaigns, disease monitoring initiatives, and educational outreach efforts. By integrating these strategies, sub-Saharan African countries can strengthen their defenses against bovine zoonoses and protect both animal and human health.

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Bovine zoonoses remain a significant public health and economic concern in sub-Saharan Africa, affecting both livestock productivity and human well-being. The major bovine zoonoses that persist in the region are brucellosis, tuberculosis, anthrax and salmonellosis (bacterial zoonoses) as well as the Rift Valley Fever (Viral zoonosis) and parasitic zoonoses such as bovine fasciolosis, bovine toxoplasmosis, bovine cysticercosis and bovine trypanosomiasis. The prevalence of these diseases varies from one area to another depending on various factors. The primary risk factors for these diseases are related to climatic and environmental conditions, animal movement and trade, farming practices, proximity to wildlife, hygiene and biosecurity measures, as well as limited access to veterinary services and inputs. The findings highlight the economic burden associated with reduced livestock productivity, trade restrictions, and increased healthcare costs. Some diagnostic and treatment methods exist but challenges such as inadequate healthcare infrastructure, antimicrobial resistance, human-livestock interactions and limited vaccination coverage hinder effective disease management. The persistence of these zoonoses highlights the need for strengthened surveillance, improved biosecurity, and coordinated control strategies. This includes implementing a One Health approach that integrates human, animal, and environmental health to mitigating the impact of zoonotic diseases on public health and livestock productivity. Additionally, expanding vaccination programs, enforcing food safety regulations and promoting a comprehensive strategy that includes policy interventions, public awareness campaigns, and international collaboration will help improve animal health, safeguard public health, and enhance agricultural productivity, ultimately contributing to regional food security and economic stability. Given the growing concerns of antimicrobial resistance and climate change, future research should focus on innovative control strategies, including the development of thermostable vaccines and alternative disease mitigation approaches.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors thank the staff of the Livestock Directorate of Benin for their collaboration. The authors also express their gratitude to Ferdjari Farms, Agro Confort, and Agri-Rosana for funding this study.

NOVELTY STATEMENTS

The novelty of this paper lies in its comprehensive analysis of bacterial, viral, and parasitic zoonoses in cattle. It examines the economic and public health impacts of these diseases on humans and proposes preventive control measures for such zoonotic pathogens.

AUTHOR’S CONTRIBUTIONS

Djibril D, Bothon D and Adjibode G: Definition of the Title, plan, redaction of introduction, conclusions, recommendations and active participation to writing all aspects of the article, plus references and annex.

Djegui F, Allanonto V and Akpata Desire A: Writing of Concept and Bovine Zoonoses in sub-Saharan Africa.

Aholou R and Boko K: Writing of: Summary and epidemiology of bovine Zoonoses in Sub-Saharan Africa.

Farougou S and Koutinhouin GB: Wrote the impact of Zoonoses on Animal And human productivity.

Conflict of Interest

The authors have declared that no competing interest exists.

REFERENCES

Abdoulaye T, Sanders JH (2006). New technologies, marketing strategies and public policy for traditional food crops: Millet in Niger. Agri. Syst., 90 (1-3): 272-292. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agsy.2005.12.008

Acha PN, Szyfres B (2003). Zoonoses and Communicable Diseases Common to Man and Animals. 3: Parasitoses. 3 ed.-, Pan American Health Organization, 2003.

Adamou HH (2008). Contribution to the epidemiological study of brucellosis in urban and peri-urban dairy farms in Niamey, Niger (Doctoral dissertation, Doctoral thesis in veterinary medicine). Interstate Sch. Sci. Vet. Med., Dakar.

Addo KK, Owusu-Darko K, Yeboah-Manu D, Caulley P, Minamikawa M, Bonsu F, OforiAdjei D (2007). Mycobacterial species causing pulmonary tuberculosis at the korle bu teaching hospital, Accra. Ghana Med. J., 41(2):52–57.

Adesola RO, Okeke,VC, Hamzat A, Onawola DA, Arthur JF (2024). Unraveling the binational outbreak of anthrax in Ghana and Nigeria: an in-depth investigation of epidemiology, clinical presentations, diagnosis, and plausible recommendations toward its eradication in Africa. Bull. Natl. Res. Cent., 48: 45. https://doi.org/10.1186/s42269-024-01203-4

Adewi E, Badameli KM, Dubreuil V (2010). Evolution of potentially useful rainy seasons in Togo from 1950 to 2000. Climatologie, 7: 89-107. https://doi.org/10.4267/climatologie.489

Agbalaya MA, Ishola OO, Adesokan, HK, Fawole OI (2020). Prevalence of bovine tuberculosis in slaughtered cattle and factors associated with risk of disease transmission among cattle handlers at Oko-Oba Abattoir, Lagos, Nigeria. Vet. world, 13(8): 1725.

Akinseye VO, Adebayo MD, Genesis OO, Adelakun O, Cadmus SIB (2018). Prevalence and risk factors of mycobacterial infections in farm and trade cattle in southwestern Nigeria. Trop. Anim. Health Prod., https://doi.org/10.1007/s11250-017-1492-4

Aladejana OM, Oladele JO, Oginni SA (2023). Systematic review of anthrax, a zoonotic bacterial infection in Africa. Anim. Res. Int., 20(3): 5143 – 5152.

Alhaji NB, Wungak YS, Bertu WJ (2016). Serological survey of bovine brucellosis in Fulani nomadic cattle breeds (Bos indicus) of North-central Nigeria: Potential risk factors and zoonotic implications. Acta Trop., 153: 28–35. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actatropica.2015.10.003

Aminu OR, Forde TL, Ekwem D, Johnson P, Nelli L, Mmbaga BT, Mshanga D, Shand M, Shirima G, Walsh M, Zadoks RN, Biek R, Lembo T (2022). Participatory mapping identifies risk areas and environmental predictors of endemic anthrax in rural Africa. Sci. Rep., 12(1): 10514. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-022-14081-5

Amona I, Miassangoumouka JP, Banga-Mboko H, Adzona PP, Rabeson FA, Ikolakoumou J (2016). Serological testing for bovine brucellosis in a center of multiplication and bovine sharecropping in the Republic of Congo-Brazzaville. JAPS, 27 (3): 4315-4329.

Anyango RM, Wachira TM, Muchemi GM (2023). Seroprevalence of Taenia saginata Cysts in Cattle, Human Hospital Cases, and Risk Factors for Human Taeniasis in Kajiado County, Kenya. Vet. Med. Int., 7385643. https://doi.org/10.1155/2023/7385643

Arsene MMJ, Jorelle ABJ, Sarra S (2021). Short Review on the Potential Alternatives to Antibiotics in the Era of Antibiotic Resistance. J. Appl. Pharm. Sci., 12(01): 029-040. https://doi.org/10.7324/JAPS.2021.120102

Asefa I, Legabo E, Wolde T, Fesseha H (2023). Study on Salmonella Isolates from Fresh Milk of Dairy Cows in Selected Districts of Wolaita Zone, Southern Ethiopia. Int. J. Microbiol., 6837797. https://doi.org/10.1155/2023/6837797

Assogba MN, Youssao AKI (2001). Prevalence of bovine fasciolosis caused by Fasciola gigantica (Cobbold, 1885) in the main slaughterhouses of Benin. Rev. Méd. Vét., 152 (10).

Ateudjieu J, Siewe Fodjo JN, Ambomatei C, Tchio-Nighie KH, Zoung KB, (2023). Zoonotic Diseases in Sub-Saharan Africa: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Zoonotic Dis., 3(4): 251-265. https://doi.org/10.3390/zoonoticdis3040021

Awah-Ndukum J, Kudi AC, Bah GS, Bradley G, Ngu Ngwa V, Dickmu PL, (2014). Risk factors analysis and implications for public health of bovine tuberculosis in the highlands of Cameroon, Bull. Anim. Hlth. Prod. Afr., 62, 353-37.

Aworh MK, Nilsson P, Egyir B, Owusu FA, Hendriksen RS (2024). Rare serovars of non-typhoidal Salmonella enterica isolated from humans, beef cattle and abattoir environments in Nigeria. PLOS ONE 19(1): e0296971. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0296971

Barrett CB, Benton T, Fanzo J, Herrero M, Buckler E, Cooper K, Culotta I, Fan S, Gandhi R, James S, Kahn M, Lawson-Lartego L, Liu J, Marshall Q, Mason-D’Croz D, Mathys A, Mathys C, Mazariegos-Anastassiou V, Misra AMK, Wood S (2022). The State of Agri-Food Systems and Agri-Food Value Chains in 2020. In: Socio-Technical Innovation Bundles for Agri-Food Systems Transformation. Sustainable Development Goals Series. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham., https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-88802-2_2

Bayang NH, Ndukum PJA (2014). Prevalence and risk factors of bovine brucellosis in certain departments of the North and Adamaoua-Cameroon regions. Doctoral thesis in veterinary medicine. Department of Microbiology and Infectious Pathologies, Sch. Vet. Sci. Med. Univ. N’Gaoundéré, N’Gaoundéré, Cameroon, 100 pages.

Bezeid D, Le Masson S, Nörtershäuser D, Glouannec P (2011). Numerical Modeling of Thermal Response of a Concrete Wall with MCPS Micro-Encapsulated. (hal-00718759).

Boka OM, Boka EE, Yapi GY, Traoré SL, Kouamé KE (2019). Epidemiology of African animal trypanosomiasis in cattle in the Korhogo department (Côte d’Ivoire). J. Livestock Vet. Med. Trop. Countries, 72 (2): 83-89. https://revues.cirad.fr/index.php/REMVT/article/view/31748/31368

Boukary AR, Saegerman C, Adehossi E, Matthys F, Vias GF, Yenikoye A, Thys E (2014). Brucellosis in sub-Saharan Africa. Ann. Med. Vet., 158: 39-56. https://www.facmv.ulg.ac.be/amv/articles/2014_158_1_03.pdf

Boukary AR, Thys E, Abatih E, Gamatié D, Ango I, Yenikoye A, Saegerman C (2011). Bovine Tuberculosis Prevalence Survey on Cattle in the Rural Livestock System of Torodi (Niger). Plos One, 6(9): e24629. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0024629

Bouslikhane M (2015). Cross border movements of animals and animal products and their relevance to the epidemiology of animal diseases in Africa, OIE Regional Commission for Africa, https://www.woah.org/app/uploads/2021/03/2015-afr2-bouslikhane-a.pdf

Bouteille B (2014). Epidemiology of cysticercosis and neurocysticercosis. Med. Santé Trop., 24(4): 367-374. https://doi.org/10.1684/mst.2014.0378

Carlson CJ, Kracalik IT, Ross N, Alexander KA, Hugh-Jones ME, Fegan M, Elkin BT, Epp T, Shury TK, Zhang W, Bagirova M, Getz WM, Blackburn JK (2019). The global distribution of Bacillus anthracis and associated anthrax risk to humans, livestock and wildlife. Nat. Microbiol., 4(8): 1337–1343. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41564-019-0435-4

Chauvin A, Zhang W, Moreau E (2007). Fasciolosis of ruminants: immunity, immunomodulation and prevention strategy. Bull French Vet. Acad., 160 (2): 85-92. https://doi.org/10.4267/2042/47871

Craighead L, Meyer A, Chengat B, Musallam I, Akakpo J, Kone P, Häsler B (2018). Brucellosis in West and Central Africa: A review of the current situation in a changing landscape of dairy cattle systems. Act. Trop., 179: 96-108. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actatropica.2017.12.026

Dabis F (2010). The World Health Organization (WHO) in the era of the zoonotic disease pandemic. 4: 19-35. https://doi.org/10.3917/her.183.0019

Davoust B, Mediannikov O, Roqueplo C, Perret C, Demoncheaux JP, Sambou M, Blaga R (2015). Serological survey of animal toxoplasmosis in Senegal. Bull Soc. Path Exot., 108: 73-77. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13149-014-0403-4

Dayo GK, Bengaly Z, Messad S, Bucheton B, Sidibe I, Cene B, Cuny G, Thevenon S (2010). Prevalence and incidence of bovine trypanosomosis in an agro-pastoral area of southwestern Burkina Faso. Res. Vet. Sci., 88(3): 470–477. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rvsc.2009.10.010

De Garine-Wichatitsky, Caron A, Kock R, Tschopp R, Munyeme M, Hofmeyr M, Michel A (2013). A review of bovine tuberculosis at the wildlife–livestock–human interface in sub-Saharan Africa. Epidemiol. Infect., 141(7):1342-1356. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0950268813000708

Dean AS, Bonfoh B, Kulo AE, Boukaya GA, Amidou M, Hattendorf J, Schelling E (2013). Epidemiology of brucellosis and qfever in linked human and animal populations in northern Togo. PloS one, 8. 8: e71501. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0071501

Degneh E, Ashenafi H, Kassa T, Kebede N, Shibeshi W, Asres K, Terefe G (2019). Trypanocidal drug resistance: A threat to animal health and production in Gidami district of Kellem Wollega Zone, Oromia Regional State, Western Ethiopia. Prev. Vet. Med., 168: 103–107. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.prevetmed.2019.03.017

Diallo M, Lochouarn L, Ba K, Sall AA, Mondo M, Girault L, Mathiot C (2000). First isolation of the Rift Valley fever virus from Culex poicilipes (Diptera: Culicidae) in nature. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg., 62(6): 702-704.

Ducrotoy M, Bertu WJ, Matope G, Cadmus S, Conde-Álvarez R, Gusi AM, Welburn S, Ocholi R, Blasco JM, Moriyón I (2017). Brucellosis in Sub-Saharan Africa: Current challenges for management, diagnosis and control. Acta Trop., 165: 179–193. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actatropica.2015.10.023

ECOWAS, NEPAD (2017). Strategic plan for the development of the agricultural sector: strategic orientations 2025. National plan for agricultural investments and food and nutritional security PNIASAN 2017–2021: 132.

Ekra JY, N’Goran EK, Mboera LEG, Mafie EM (2023). Prevalence of bovine trypanosomiasis in Côte d’Ivoire: Systematic review and meta-analysis. The Onderstepoort J. Vet. Res., 90(1): e1–e8. https://doi.org/10.4102/ojvr.v90i1.2069

Elelu N, Lawal A, Bolu SA, Jaji Z, Eisler MC (2016). Participatory epidemiology of cattle diseases among the fulani pastoralists in bacita market, edu local government area, Kwara State, North -central Nigeria. EC Vet. Sci. J., 2.3: 133-144.

Elton L, Thomason MJ, Tembo J, Velavan TP, Pallerla SR, Amuda LB, Vairo F, Montaldo C, Ntoumi F, Hamid MMA, Haider N, Kock R, Ippolito G, Zoumla A, McHugh TD, the PANDORA-ID-NET consortium (2020). Antimicrobial resistance preparedness in sub-Saharan African countries. Antimicrobial Resistance and Infection Control. Antimicrob. Resist. Infect. Control, 9: 145. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13756-020-00800-y

FAO (2021). Global Early Warning System for Major Animal Diseases, Including Zoonoses (GLEWS). https://www.fao.org/glews/en

FAO (2019). Tripartite guide on zoonoses. Publishers: FAO, OIE, WHO.

FAO (2018). Sustainable livestock breeding in Africa 2050. The monetary impact of zoonotic diseases on society. 28 pages.

FAO (2016). The FAO Action Plan on Antimicrobial Resistance 2016-2020. https://www.fao.org/3/i6104e/i6104e.pdf

Faye LM, Hosu MC, Vasaikar S, Dippenaar A, Oostvogels S, Apalata T (2022). Spatial Distribution and Clustering of Drug-Resistant Mycobacterium Tuberculosis Infections in Rural Eastern Cape Province of South Africa. Pathogens, 12(3): 475. https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens12030475

Feucherolles M, Nennig M, Becker SL, Martiny D (2021). Investigation of MALDI-TOF Mass Spectrometry for Assessing the Molecular Diversity of Campylobacter jejuni and Comparison with MLST and cgMLST. Diagnostics. Available at: https://www.mdpi.com/2075-4418/11/11/1949

Frean J, Cloete A, Rossouw J, Blumberg L (2018). Brucellosis in South Africa–A notifiable medical condition. NICD Communicable Diseases Communique, 16(3): 110-117.

Grace, D., Gilbert J, RandolphT (2012). The multiple burdens of zoonotic disease and an ecohealth approach to their assessment. Trop Anim Health Prod 44 (Suppl 1), 67–73 (2012). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11250-012-0209-y

García-Díez J, Moura D, Grispoldi L, Cenci-Goga B, Saraiva S, Silva F, Saraiva C, Ausina J (2024). Salmonella spp. in Domestic Ruminants, Evaluation of Antimicrobial Resistance Based on the One Health Approach—A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Vet. Sci., 11(7): 315. https://doi.org/10.3390/vetsci11070315

Geering K, Béguin P, Garty H, Karlish S, Füzesi M, Horisberger JD, Crambert G (2003). FXYD proteins: new tissue‐and isoform‐specific regulators of Na, K‐ATPase. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci., 986(1): 388-394. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1749-6632.2003.tb07219.x

Harouna M, Diendere EA, Salissou L, Tapsoba GP, Ibrahim Mamadou AK, Andonaba JB, Traoré A (2017). Febrile diseases in patients hospitalized at the Department of Dermatology and Venereology of the Yalgado Ouédraogo University Hospital (CHUYO): Epidemiological, etiological, and therapeutic aspects. Our Dermatol Online. 14(2):131-137. https://doi.org/10.7241/ourd.20232.3

Hassan OA, Ahlm C, Sang R, Evander M (2011) The 2007 Rift Valley Fever Outbreak in Sudan. PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases 5(9): e1229. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pntd.0001229

Havelaar H, Kirk D, Torgerson R, Gibb J, Hald T, Lake J, Praet N, Bellinger C, de Silva R, Gargouri N, Speybroeck N, A Cawthorne A, Mathers C, Stein C, Angulo J, Devleesschauwer B (2015). World Health Organization Global Estimates and Regional Comparisons of the Burden of Foodborne Disease in 2010. PLoS Medicine, 12, e1001923. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pmed.1001923

Jaja IF, Mushonga B, Green E, Muchenje V (2017). Seasonal prevalence, body condition score and risk factors of bovine fasciolosis in South Africa. Vet. Anim. Sci., 4: 1-7. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vas.2017.06.001

Kazwala RR, Daborn CJ, Sharp JM, Kambarage DM, Jiwa SF, Mbembati NA (2001). Isolation of Mycobacterium bovis from human cases of cervical adenitis in Tanzania: a cause for concern? The international journal of tuberculosis and lung disease: Off. J. Int. Union Tuberc. Lung Dis., 5(1): 87–91.

Kelly RF, Gonzaléz Gordon L, Egbe NF, Freeman EJ, Mazeri S, Ngwa VN, Tanya V, Sander M, Ndip L, Muwonge A, Morgan KL, Handel IG, Bronsvoort, BM (2022). Bovine tuberculosis epidemiology in Cameroon, Central Africa, based on the interferon-gamma assay. Front. Vet. Sci., 9:877541. https://doi.org/10.3389/fvets.2022.877541

Kiambi SG, Fèvre EM, Omolo J, Oundo J, de Glanville WA (2020) Risk factors for acute human brucellosis in Ijara, north-eastern Kenya. PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis. 14(4): e0008108. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pntd.0008108

Kiiza D, Biryomumaisho S, Robertson ID, Hernandez JA (2021). Seroprevalence of and risk factors associated with exposure to Brucella spp. in dairy cattle in Rwanda. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg., 104(4):1241-1246. doi: 10.4269/ajtmh.20-1426. PMID: 33534748; PMCID: PMC8045630.

Klous G, Huss A, Heederik DJJ, Coutinho LA (2016). Les contacts humains-bétail et leur relation avec la transmission des pathogènes zoonotiques, une revue systématique de la littérature. Une santé, 2: 65-76.

Koné H, Kini BF, Yougbaré Z, Yaro MB, Sawadogo M (2012). Studies of phytochemistry and in vitro antimicrobial activity of Moringa leaves oleifera ( Moringaceae ). Pharm. and trad. Afri. Med., 16.

Kouamé KGG, Koné PS, Sabi SS, Dahourou LD, Tialla D, Bonfoh B, Kakpo AJ (2015). Bovine brucellosis in livestock farms and slaughterhouses in Senegal. Rev. Afri. Health Prod. Anim., 13 (1-2): 33-37.

Kouengoua APK, Tsissa YL, Noudeke ND, Chimi RN, Njayou AN, Youssao AKI, Dahouda M, Boko C, Dougnon V, Awah-Ndukum J, Souaibou F (2024) Prevalence and zoonotic risk factors of Mycobacterium bovis tuberculosis in cattle at the cattle-wildlife-human interface in South and East Cameroon, Vet. World, 17(1): 8-16. https://doi.org/10.14202/vetworld.2024.8-16

Kumar A, Tadesse G (2011). Bovine cysticercosis in Ethiopia: a review. Ethiop. Vet. J., 15(1). https://doi.org/10.4314/evj.v15i1.67681

Leta S, Alemayehu G, Seyoum Z, Bezie, M (2016). Prevalence of bovine trypanosomosis in Ethiopia: a meta-analysis. Parasites Vectors, 9: 139. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13071-016-1404-x

Leumbe O, Bitom D, Mamdem L, Tiki D, Ibrahim A (2015). Mapping areas at risk of flooding in the Sudano-Sahelian zone: case of Maga and its surroundings in the extreme region -north Cameroon. Africa Science: Int. Rev. Sci. Technol., 11(3): 45-61.

Lita EP, Ochi EB, Misinzo G, van Heerden H, Katani R, Godfroid J, Mathew C (2024). Seroprevalence and risk factors of brucellosis in pastoralists and their livestock in Central Equatoria State, South Sudan. PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis., 18(12): e0012144. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pntd.0012144. PMID: 39700259; PMCID: PMC11658696

Lokinda F, Kakule S, Osando J, Litindi R (2024). Prévalence sérologique de la Trypanosomose Animale Africaine (TAA) chez les bovins élevés dans la vallée de la Semuliki, RD Congo, Rev. Mar. Sci. Agron. Vét., 12(3):164-169. -ISSN: 2028-991X, https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.13730628

Lubroth J, Rweyemamu MM, Viljoen G (2007). Veterinary vaccines and their use in developing countries. Revue Scientifique et Technique. Available at: https://www.academia.edu/download/78238125/lubroth13179202.pdf

Mafojane NA, Appleton CC, Krecek RC, Michael LM, Willingham AL (2003). The current status of neurocysticercosis in Eastern and Southern Africa. Act. Trop., 87(1): 25-33. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0001-706X(03)00052-4

Maman H, Tete-Benissan A, Kulo A, Batawi KB, Bankole AA, Adjabli KM, Tchassanti AS, Kokou K (2022). Epidemiology of animal toxoplasmosis: seroprevalence in cattle in the five regions of Togo. Life, Earth. Agron. Sci., 10(1): 38-42

Mamoudou A, Zoli A, Tchoua P (2009). Parasitological prevalence of bovine trypanosomosis in the Faro and Deo division valley of the Adamaoua plateau, Cameroon, Int. J. Biol. Chem. Sci., 3(5): 1192-1197. https://doi.org/10.4314/ijbcs.v3i5.51097

Mangen MJ, Otte J, Pfeiffer D, Chilonda P (2002). Bovine brucellosis in Sub-Sahran Africa: Estimation of Sero-Prevalence and Impact on Meat and Milk Offtake Potential. Livestock Policy Discussion Paper No. 8, FAO. https://openknowledge.fao.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/87a85ab6-3e0c-4e34-85d9-0f7701687c3f/content

Mangena ML, Gcebe N, Thompson PN, Adesiyun AA (2023). Q fever and toxoplasmosis in South African livestock and wildlife: a retrospective study on seropositivity, sporadic abortion, and stillbirth cases in livestock caused by Coxiella burnetii. BMC Vet. Res., 19: 168. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12917-023-03645-w

Masombuka M, Mphuthi MB, Ngoshe YB, Mokolopi G, Gcebe N (2024) Seroprevalence and risk factors of Toxoplasma gondii in sheep and goats of North West Province, South Africa. BMC Vet. Res., 20: 120. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12917-024-03939-7

Mather AE, Lawson B, de Pinna E, Wigley P, Parkhill J, Thomson NR, Page AJ, Holmes MA, Paterson GK (2016). Genomic analysis of Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium from wild passerines in England and Wales. Appl. Environ. Microbiol., 82: https://doi.org/10.1128/AEM.01660-16

Matope G, Bhebhe E, Muma JB, Oloya J, Madekurozwa RL, Lund A, Skjerve E (2011). Seroprevalence of brucellosis and its associated risk factors in cattle from smallholder dairy farms in Zimbabwe. Trop. Anim. Health Prod., 43: 975-82. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11250-011-9794-4

McDermott, John J, Arimi SM (2002). Brucellosis in Sub-Saharan Africa: Epidemiology, Control and Impact. Vet. Microbiol., 90(1-4): 111-34. https://doi.org/10.1016/S03781135(02)00249-3

Megersa B, Biffa D, Abunna F, Regassa A, Godfroid J, Skjerve E (2011). Seroprevalence of brucellosis and its contribution to abortion in cattle, camel and goat kept under pastoral management in Borana, Ethiopia. Trop. Anim. Health Prod., 43(3): 651–656. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11250-010-9748-2

Mekuria S, Abebe R, Abera M, Mekibib B, Sisay S, Gebeyehu A, Gemeda., Ushecho S, Assefa T, Kore K, Asfaw N, Sheferaw D (2024). Prevalence of bovine trypanosomosis and tsetse fly density in Loka Abaya and Derara districts in Sidama Regional State, Ethiopia. Parasitol. Res., 123: 296. https://doi.org/10.4314/ejbs.v4i1.39017

Mengele IJ, Shirima GM, Bwatota SF, Motto SK, Bronsvoort BMC, Komwihangilo DM, Lyatuu E, Cook EAJ, Hernandez-Castro LE (2023). The Status and Risk Factors of Brucellosis in Smallholder Dairy Cattle in Selected Regions of Tanzania. Vet. Sci., 10(2): 155. https://doi.org/10.3390/vetsci10020155

Meseko CA, Tekki IS, Shittu I (2021). Zoonotic Diseases Situation in Nigeria: Control Measures and Challenges. Proc. Niger. Acad. Sci., 14. https://doi.org/10.57046/UNFQ8414

Mhamadi M, Badji A, Barry MA, Ndiaye EH, Gaye A, Ndiaye M, Mhamadi M, Touré CT, Ndiaye O, Faye B, Diop B, Ndiaye M, Fall M, Diouf AM, Sagne SN, Loucoubar C, Fausther-Bovendo H, Ara XIII, Sall AA, Faye O (2023). Human and Livestock Surveillance Revealed the Circulation of Rift Valley Fever Virus in Agnam, Northern Senegal, 2021. Trop. Med. Infect. Dis., 8(2): 87. https://doi.org/10.3390/tropicalmed8020087

Mogaji HO, Adewale B, Smith SI, Igumbor EU, Idemili CJ, Taylor-Robinson AW (2024). Combatting anthrax outbreaks across Nigeria’s national land borders: need to optimize surveillance with epidemiological surveys. Infect. Dis. Poverty, 13(1): 10. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40249-024-01179-3

Monde N, Munyeme M, Siziya S, Zulu M, Chongwe G, Kabelenga E, Daka V, Siame KK, Tembo R, Malama S (2023). Risk factors associated with zoonotic tuberculosis at the animal-human interface in a tuberculosis-endemic sub-Saharan country. J. Vet. Med. Sci., 85(10): 1136–1141. https://doi.org/10.1292/jvms.22-0565

Mosomtai G, Kasiiti JL, Murithi RM, Sandström P, Landmann T, Lwande OW, Hassan OA, Ahlm C, Sang R, Evander M, Szantoi Z,Ottavianelli G, (2023). Characterizing movement patterns of nomadic pastoralists and their exposure to rift valley fever in Kenya. The International Archives of the Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing and Spatial Information Sciences. XLVIII-M-1-2023. 211-216. https://doi.org/10.5194/isprs-archives-XLVIII-M-1-2023-211-2023

Mudenda S, Chabalenge B, Daka V, Mfune R, Salachi K, Mohamed S, Mufwambi W, Kasanga M, Matafwali S (2023) Global Strategies to Combat Antimicrobial Resistance: A One Health Perspective. Pharmacol. Pharm., 14: 271-328. https://doi.org/10.4236/pp.2023.148020

Muhammed C, Seboka F, Tibesso G (2017) Review on Epidemiological Features of Mycobaterium Bovis at the Human, Cattle and Wildlife Interface in Ethiopia. J. Epidemiol. Infect. Dis., 1(1): 00007. https://doi.org/10.15406/jeid.2017.01.00007

Munyeme M, Munang’andu HM, Nambota A, Muma JB, Phiri AM, Nalubamba KS (2012). The Nexus between Bovine Tuberculosis and Fasciolosis Infections in Cattle of the Kafue Basin Ecosystem in Zambia: Implications on Abattoir Surveillance, Vet. Med. Int., 921869: 6. https://doi.org/10.1155/2012/921869

Muturi M, Gachohi J, Mwatondo A, Lekolool I, Gakuya F, Bett A, Osoro E, Bitek A, Thumbi SM, Munyua P, Oyas H, Njagi ON, Bett B, Njenga MK (2018). Recurrent Anthrax Outbreaks in Humans, Livestock, and Wildlife in the Same Locality, Kenya, 2014-2017. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg., 99(4): 833–839. https://doi.org/10.4269/ajtmh.18-0224

Mwacalimba K, Kimeli P, Tiernan R, Mijten E, Miroshnychenko T, Poulsen NB (2025). Diseases of Economic Importance in Feedlot Cattle in Sub-Saharan Africa: A Review with a Focus on Existing and Potential Options for Control. Animals, 15(1): 97. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani15010097

NCDC Nigeria Centre for Disease Control (2023). Available at: www.ncdc.gov.ng/ news/491/confirmation-of-anthrax-outbreak-in-nigeria, https://doi.org/10.3389/fitd.2023.1297896

Ntivuguruzwa JB, Kolo FB, Gashururu RS, Umurerwa L, Byaruhanga C, van Heerden H (2020). Seroprevalence and Associated Risk Factors of Bovine Brucellosis at the Wildlife-Livestock-Human Interface in Rwanda. Microorganisms, 8(10): 1553. https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms8101553

Nyakarahuka L, Kyondo J, Telford C, Whitesell A, Tumusiime A, Mulei S, Baluku J, Cossaboom CM, Cannon DL, Montgomery JM, Lutwama JJ, Nichol ST, Balinandi S, Klena JD, Shoemaker TR (2023). A Countrywide Seroepidemiological Survey of Rift Valley Fever in Livestock, Uganda, 2017. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg., 109(3): 548–553. https://doi.org/10.4269/ajtmh.22-0504

Odeniran PO, Onifade AA, MacLeod ET, Ademola IO, Alderton S, Welburn SC (2020). Mathematical modelling and control of African animal trypanosomosis with interacting populations in West Africa-Could biting flies be important in main taining the disease endemicity? PloS one, 15(11): e0242435. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0242435

Ogugua AJ, Akinseye VO, Cadmus EO, Awosanya EA, Alabi PI, Idowu OS, Akinade SA, Dale EI, Perret L, Taylor A, Moriyon I, Cadmus SIB. (2018). Prevalence and risk factors associated with bovine brucellosis in herds under extensive production system in southwestern Nigeria. Trop. Anim. Health Prod., 50. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11250-018-1597-4

Omodo M, Gardela J, Namatovu A, Okurut RA, Esau M, Acham M, Nakanjako MF, Israel M, Isingoma E, Moses M, Paul L, Ssenkeera B, Atim SA, Gonahasa DN, Sekamatte M, Gouilh MA, Gonzalez JP (2023). Anthrax bio-surveillance of livestock in Arua District, Uganda, 2017-2018. Acta tropica, 240: 106841. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actatropica.2023.106841

Pascoe L, Clemen T, Bradshaw K (2022). Review of importance of weather and environmental variables in agent-based arbovirus models. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. Available at: https://www.mdpi.com/1660-4601/19/23/15578

Peyre M, Chevalier V, Abdo-Salem S, Velthuis A, Antoine-Moussiaux N, Thiry E, Roger F (2015). A Systematic Scoping Study of the Socio-Economic Impact of Rift Valley Fever: Research Gaps and Needs. Zoonoses Public Health, 62(5): 309–325. https://doi.org/10.1111/zph.12153

Pittiglio C, Shadomy S, El Idrissi A, Soumare B, Lubroth J, Makonnen Y (2022). Seasonality and Ecological Suitability Modelling for Anthrax (Bacillus anthracis) in Western Africa. Animals: an open access journal from MDPI, 12(9): 1146. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani12091146

Rabi’u BM, and Jegede OC (2010). Incidence of bovine cysticercosis in Kano state, northwestern, Nigeria, Bayero J. Pure Appl. Sci., 3(1): 100 – 103. https://doi.org/10.4314/bajopas.v3i1.58729

Ranjan KR, Read S (2016). Value co-creation: concept and measurement. J. Acad. Mark. Sci., 44: 290–315. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11747-014-0397-2

Regassa AA, Tassew K, Amenu B, Megersa F, Abunna F, Mekibib B, Ameni G (2010). A cross-sectional study on bovine tuberculosis in Hawassa town and its surroundings, Southern Ethiopia. Trop. Anim. Health Prod., 42: 915-920. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11250-009-9507-4

Roelandts M (2023). Perception of zoonotic diseases by cattle breeders in Senegal: case of anthrax, tuberculosis and brucellosis in the Kolda region.

Roth AV, Menor LJ (2003). Insights into service operations management: a research agenda. Production and Operations management, 12(2):145-164. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1937-5956.2003.tb00498.x

Sanogo M, Fretin D, Thys E, Saegerman C (2017). Exploring the diversity of fields strains of Brucella abortus biovar 3 isolated in West Africa. Front. Microbiol., 8: 243-910. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2017.01232

Siama A, Nloga NAM (2018). Distribution of Lymnaea Natalensis deposits, intermediate -host of Fasciola gigantica, in the grazing lands of Far North region Cameroon. J. Entom. Zool. Stud., 6(6): 624-634.

Sidibé S, Dicko NA, Fané A, Doumbia RM, Sidibé CK, Kanté S, Fofana M (2003). Bovine tuberculosis in Mali: results of an epidemiological investigation in dairy farms in the periurban area of the Bamako district. J. Livestock Vet. Med. Trop. Countries, 56(3-4): 115-120.

Singleton AL, Glidden CK, Chamberlin AJ (2024). Species distribution modeling for disease ecology: a multi-scale case study for schistosomiasis host snails in Brazil. PLOS Global Public Health. Available at: https://journals.plos.org/globalpublichealth/article?id=10.1371/journal.pgph.0002224

Sumaye RD, Geubbels E, Mbeyela E, Berkvens D (2013) Inter-epidemic Transmission of Rift Valley Fever in Livestock in the Kilombero River Valley, Tanzania: A Cross-Sectional Survey. PLOS Negl. Trop. Dis., 7(8): e2356. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pntd.0002356

Swanepoel JAW, Coetzer RC, 2004. Infectious diseases of livestock 2nd ed, Oxford University Press, 232.

Tadesse A, Sharew B, Tilahun M, Million Y (2024). Isolation and antimicrobial susceptibility profile of Salmonella species from slaughtered cattle carcasses and abattoir personnel at Dessie, municipality Abattoir, Northeast Ethiopia. BMC Microbiol., 24: 357. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12866-024-03507-x

Takayanagui OM, Odashima NS (2006). Clinical aspects of neurocysticercosis. Parasitol. Int., 55: S111-S115. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.parint.2005.11.016

Tchamdja E, Kulo AE, Vitouley HS, Batawui K, Bankolé AA, Adomefa K, Cecchi G, Hoppenheit A, Clausen PH, De Deken R, Van Den Abbeele J, Marcotty T, Delespaux V (2017). Cattle breeding, trypanosomosis prevalence and drug resistance in Northern Togo. Vet. Parasitol., 236: 86–92. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vetpar.2017.02.008

Tonouhewa AB, Akpo Y, Sessou P, Adoligbe C, Yessinou E, Hounmanou, YG, Assogba, MN, Youssao I, Farougou S (2017). Toxoplasma gondii infection in meat animals from Africa: Systematic review and meta-analysis of sero-epidemiological studies. Vet. World, 10(2): 194–208.

Tora E, Dana D (2024) Epidemiology and Economic Cost of Trypanosomosis Among SmallHolder Cattle Herders in Arba Minch and Zuria Districts, Gamo Zone, Ethiopia. Environ. Health Insights.;18. https://doi.org/10.1177/11786302241274698

Vordermeier M, Ameni G, Berg S, Bishop R, Robertson BD, Aseffa A, Young DB (2012). The influence of cattle breed on susceptibility to bovine tuberculosis in Ethiopia. Comp. Immunol. Microbiol. Infect. Dis., 35(3): 227-232. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cimid.2012.01.003

WHO (2022). WHO in Africa. Accessed at https://www.afro.who.nt/fr/news/en-afrique-lesmorbides-transmises-par-les-animals-lhomme-ont-bondi-de-63-au-cours

World Health Organization (WHO): 2022. Atlas of African Health Statistics 2022: Health Situation Analysis of the WHO African Region. https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/364851/9789290234838-eng.pdf?sequence=1

Yanagida T, Yoshikawa A, Yokota Y, Kamada K, Usuki Y, Yamamoto S, Ohuchi N (2010). Development of Pr: LuAG scintillator array and assembly for positron emission mammography. IEEE Trans. Nucl. Sci., 57 (3): 1492-1495. https://doi.org/10.1109/TNS.2009.2032265

Zoli A, Shey-Njila O, Assana E, Nguekam JP, Dorny P, Brandt P, Geerts S (2003). Regional status, epidemiology and impact of Taenia solium cysticercosis in Western and Central Africa. Acta Trop., 87 (1): 35-42. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0001-706X(03)00053-6