Research Article

Investigating the Hepatoprotective and Renoprotective Effects of Spirulina in a Rabbit Model of Lead Poisoning

Hassaneen Sharoot, Nabeel A. Almamoori, Abdulrazzaq B. Kadhim*, Hazem K. Almhanna

Department of Anatomy and Histology, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Al-Qadisiyah. Iraq.

Received | February 20, 2025; Accepted | April 11, 2025; Published | May 20, 2025

*Correspondence | Abdulrazzaq B. Kadhim, Department of Anatomy and Histology, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Al-Qadisiyah. Iraq; Email: [email protected]

Citation | Sharoot H, Almamoori NA, Kadhim AB, Almhanna HK (2025). Investigating the hepatoprotective and renoprotective effects of spirulina in a rabbit model of lead poisoning. Adv. Anim. Vet. Sci. 13(6): 1314-1322.

DOI | https://dx.doi.org/10.17582/journal.aavs/2025/13.6.1314.1322

ISSN (Online) | 2307-8316; ISSN (Print) | 2309-3331

Copyright: 2025 by the authors. Licensee ResearchersLinks Ltd, England, UK.

This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

INTRODUCTION

Spirulina is the dried biomass of cyanobacteria (blue-green algae) that humans and animals can consume. The three species are Arthrospira platensis, A. fusiformis, and A. maxima. The species A. maxima and A. platensis were once classified in the genus Spirulina. The common name, spirulina, refers to the dried biomass of A. platensis (Gershwin and Belay, 2007; Hassan et al., 2023). Spirulina is a supplement to nutrition in that it qualifies as a complete source of protein that delivers the whole spectrum of essential amino acids. Such comprehensive protein profiles make it beneficial for incorporation into dietary patterns, especially for vegetarians, and vegans . Additionally, it is a rich source of vitamins and minerals, including B vitamins, iron, calcium, magnesium, and potassium, which are crucial for various body functions such as energy production and immune support (Fatima and Srivastava, 2017; Falquet and Hurni, 1997). Spirulina, a microscopic cyanobacterium, has garnered significant attention due to its exceptional nutritional profile and potential health benefits. It is a complete protein source, rich in essential amino acids, vitamins, minerals, and antioxidants. This unique combination of nutrients makes spirulina a valuable addition to a healthy diet (Albaghdady et al., 2024; Emerald and Rosenberg, 2004). According to Gaur et al. (2024) and Canchihuaman et al. (2010), the mechanisms of the extracted Spirulina function as antioxidants, provide nutritional support, and exhibit anti-inflammatory effects. These properties facilitate lead binding and chelation, as well as improve detoxification pathways, offering a comprehensive strategy for reducing lead toxicity.

Moreover, Spirulina, a blue-green microalga, has emerged as a highly valuable nutritional resource due to its exceptional nutritional profile. This cyanobacterium boasts an impressive array of essential nutrients, including a remarkably high protein content, making it a compelling dietary option for various applications (El-Shall et al., 2023).

Lead has several biochemical, physiological, and interactive consequences on animals and people. High lead exposure can affect the liver, kidneys, bones, growth, and blood function. It may harm proteins, DNA, animal cells, and molecules (Singh et al., 2018). Also, lead exposure decreases hemoglobin and red blood cell count. Lead intoxication also affects liver function such as alanine, aspartate, alkaline phosphatases and lipid metabolism (Offor et al., 2017).

These findings continued research into the effects of lead exposure on hematobiochemical parameters in animals is of paramount importance. The findings of such studies will not only advance our scientific understanding of lead toxicity but also have significant implications for the development of improved diagnostic tools and more effective treatment strategies, ultimately improving the health and well-being of both animal populations and potentially, human populations exposed to environmental lead (Abdelhamid et al., 2020).

The biochemical assessment uses blood tests to evaluate the liver, kidneys, and other vital organs in particular with lead toxicity (Andjelkovic et al., 2019). Administration of spirulina extract will mitigate lead-induced oxidative stress, inflammation, and apoptosis in the liver and kidneys, leading to improved renal and hepatic function and enhanced bone mineral density in a lead-poisoned animals model (El-Tantawy, 2016; Abdel Fattah et al., 2022; Subhi and Al-Okaily, 2023). So, this study aims to elucidate the molecular mechanisms by which spirulina extract mitigates the deleterious effects of lead exposure in a rabbit model. Specifically, we will investigate the protective effects of spirulina extract on hepatic, renal, and bone tissue function in rabbits.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Animals

A total of thirty albino rabbits (both sexes), aged 6-12 months and with an average weight of 1867.98 gm, were acquired from the Diwaniyah market in Iraq between September and November 2024. The rabbits were quarantined for a period of two to four weeks before this study. The subjects were, during this time, continuously monitored with respect to observations and tests for any signs of illness. In addition, the rabbit’s skin was evaluated externally for evidence of parasites, lesions, or any respiratory problems. Also, the faecal samples were assessed for parasites and possible abnormalities.

This study adhered to the ethical guidelines and regulations for animal research established by the College of Veterinary Medicine at Al-Qadisiyah University (approval number PG, No. 1894 in 2020). The rabbits were housed in a controlled environment with adequate nutrition, lighting, and ventilation. A two-week acclimatization period was observed to monitor their health and rule out any infectious diseases.

The rabbits were then divided into two groups: a control group (n=10) and an experimental group (n=20). The experimental group was administered feed containing 1g/kg lead for 40 days. Following this, the control group received no further treatment. The experimental group was then subdivided: one subgroup (G1) was treated with spirulina, and the other subgroup (G2) received no treatment for an additional 40 days. Environmental determinants during experimental period were observed during the experimental period in terms of daily clinical observations of the rabbits which included; appetite, water consumption, urine and feces, the rate and effort with which they breathed, their levels of activity, their behavior, hair loss, body weight, sexual desire in males, vision, diarrhea, movement, skin condition, and the condition of hindlimb and forelimb toes: all these with clear protocols for recording and reporting any abnormalities vis-a-vis the control group. Subsequently, all rabbits were anesthetized using a combination of ketamine (35 mg/kg) and xylazine (5 mg/kg). Following successful anesthesia, blood was obtained through direct heart withdrawal and preserved for later analysis. Blood lead levels were determined using electrothermal atomic absorption spectrometry (ETAAS) and measured in micrograms per deciliter (µg/dL) to confirm lead exposure.

The lead-exposed group was further subdivided into two subgroups (n=10 each). One subgroup received DXN Spirulina tablets (250 mg) at a dose of 5 g/kg of feed, while the other subgroup received no treatment. Subsequently, animal weight, vital signs, and liver and kidney enzyme levels were assessed for 40 days. Tissue samples from bone were collected for histological examination. The results of each group were then compared.

Analysis of Biochemical Parameters

Serum samples were used to examine liver and kidney function, including AST, ALT, and ALP levels. California-made Beckman Coulter (BC) AU480 and Biorad D10 devices were used for the analysis. Kinetic UV approach in commercial kits from Human Gesellschaft for Biochemical and Diagnostics mbH in Wiesbaden, Germany, detected the major organic components urea, creatinine, and uric acid. This analysis measured liver enzymes, creatinine, urea, and uric acid.

Histopathological Study

Samples of fore or lower limb bones are taken for both groups. After that, bones sectioning steps are performed using the decalcification technique. The decalcification technique involves immersing the bone in either hydrochloric acid or formic acid. The volume of the working solution should be twenty times greater than the volume of the samples. The solutions are replaced daily until the calcium deposits are removed. After decalcification, rinse the bone sample for 15 minutes, and then soak it in an ammonia solution for approximately 30 minutes. After immersing it in the ammonia solution for thirty minutes, the sample should be washed under running tap water for approximately 24 hours. Immerse the bone in paraffin wax to coat it and then complete the cutting and dyeing procedures (Luna,1968).

Statically Analysis

Statistical analysis was performed employing IBM SPSS Statistics 23.0 (SPSS). A two-way ANOVA was conducted to consider serum levels of liver enzymes (AST, ALT, and ALP), urea, creatinine, and uric acid for kidey, and levels concentrations of Calcium (mg/dL), Iron (µg/dL), Zinc (µg/dL), Magnesium by control group and experimental groups. In a similar line, clinical signs were observed in rats before and after spirulina treatment. Accepted significance was when the p-value≤0.05.

RESULTS

The results of the study showed that 80% of the animals that were fed with lead, suffered from anorexia, 70% experienced lethargy, and 60% displayed neurological symptoms. Other significant issues included weight loss (84%), reduced appetite (88%), and overall weakness (76%) Table 1 and 2. After treatment with spirulina, there was a marked reduction in the prevalence of these symptoms. For instance, the number of animals with anorexia dropped from 80% to 20%, lethargy decreased from (70% to 24%), and neurological symptoms were reduced from (60% to 16%). The percentage improvement for these symptoms was significant, with anorexia improving by 75%, lethargy by 65.7%, and neurological symptoms by 73.3%, all with highly significant p-values (p ≤0.01) Table 1. Other clinical signs also showed considerable improvement post-treatment. Respiratory issues decreased by 75%, dehydration by 72%, and weight loss by 64.3%. Even hair loss and gastrointestinal distress, showed significant reductions, with improvements of 54.5% and 50%, respectively (p ≤0.05) Table 1 and 2. Also in Table 1 and 2 revealed the improvements in more critical conditions such as decreased sexual desire in males (66.7% improvement), blindness (62.5% improvement), localized damage to the toes improved, Changes in eye color and complete loss of vision showed significant reductions. The reduction in the prevalence of these symptoms after spirulina treatment was statistically significant, with p-values mostly below (0.01 or 0.05). Body weight regained was substantial, dehydration improved markedly, and the overall mood and mobility saw substantial recovery.

 

Table 1: Clinical signs observed in animals before and after spirulina treatment.

Clinical Sign	Before Treatment (n=١٠)	After Treatment (n=١٠)	% Improvement	p- value ≤0.05
Anorexia	40 (80%)	10 (20%)	75%	0.01
Lethargy	35 (70%)	12 (24%)	65.7%	0.01
Neurological Symptoms	30 (60%)	8 (16%)	73.3%	0.01
Gastrointestinal Distress	28 (56%)	14 (28%)	50%	0.05
Respiratory Issues	20 (40%)	5 (10%)	75%	0.01
Weight Loss	42 (84%)	15 (30%)	64.3%	0.01
Dehydration	25 (50%)	7 (14%)	72%	0.01
Depression	33 (66%)	11 (22%)	66.7%	0.01
Overall Weakness	38 (76%)	13 (26%)	65.8%	0.01
Hair Loss	22 (44%)	10 (20%)	54.5%	0.05
Hind Limb Coordination Issues (Ataxia)	27 (54%)	9 (18%)	66.7%	0.01
Erosion of the Toe	18 (36%)	6 (12%)	66.7%	0.01
Reduced Appetite	44 (88%)	17 (34%)	61.4%	0.01
Significant Weight Loss (1000±34.78g)	40 (80%)	12 (24%)	70%	0.01
Diarrhea	30 (60%)	14 (28%)	53.3%	0.05
Decreased Sexual Desire in Males	15 (30%)	5 (10%)	66.7%	0.05
Darkening of the Eyes	17 (34%)	6 (12%)	64.7%	0.05
Blindness	8 (16%)	3 (6%)	62.5%	0.05

 

Table 2: Scoring index and quantitative assessment of the effectiveness of spirulina tablets in alleviating various clinical signs associated with lead poisoning.

Clinical Sign	Score Before Treatment	Score After Treatment	% Improvement	p- value ≤0.05
Anorexia	4	1	75%	0.01
Lethargy	4	1	65.7%	0.01
Neurological Symptoms	4	1	73.3%	0.01
Gastrointestinal Distress	3	1	50%	0.05
Respiratory Issues	3	1	75%	0.01
Weight Loss	4	1	64.3%	0.01
Dehydration	3	1	72%	0.01
Depression	3	1	66.7%	0.01
Overall Weakness	4	1	65.8%	0.01
Hair Loss	2	1	54.5%	0.05
Hind Limb Coordination Issues (Ataxia)	3	1	66.7%	0.01
Erosion of the Toe	2	1	66.7%	0.01
Reduced Appetite	3	1	61.4%	0.01
Significant Weight Loss (1000±34.78g)	4	1	70%	0.01
Diarrhea	3	1	53.3%	0.05
Decreased Sexual Desire in Males	3	1	66.7%	0.05
Darkening of the Eyes	2	1	64.7%	0.05
Blindness	4	1	62.5%	0.05

 

Biochemical Study

The results of biochemical parameters displayed that the lead-exposed group, significant alterations in these parameters, reflecting the toxic effects of lead. Consequently, the urea levels were markedly elevated (74.07 ± 11.04 mg/dL) Table 3 and 4, indicating possible renal impairment. After Spirulina treatment, urea levels dropped significantly to (25.1 ± 2.589) mg/dL. The rabbits were quarantined for a period of two to four weeks before this study., showing a 66.1% improvement, with a highly significant p-value (≤ 0.01). Similarly, the levels of key liver enzymes, AST and ALT, were also significantly decreased after treatment, indicating improved liver function Table 3 and 4.

Interestingly, while uric acid levels were low in the lead-exposed group (0.4 ± 0.0 mg/dL), it increased extensively after spirulina treatment (1.02 ± 0.18 mg/dL) (Table 3 and 4), suggesting a possible restoration of normal metabolic processes. The essential minerals calcium, iron, zinc, and magnesium were also severely depleted in the lead group but showed significant improvement following spirulina administration. For example, iron levels nearly doubled, and calcium levels increased by 35.9%, with both showing statistically significant changes (p ≤0.01).

 

Table 3: Biochemical parameters before and after spirulina treatment.

Parameter	Lead Group (Mean ± SD)	Spirulina-Treated Group (Mean ± SD)	Control Group (Mean ± SD)	% Change (Lead vs. Spirulina)	p- value ≤0.05
Urea (mg/dL)	74.07 ±11.04	25.1 ± 2.589	9.525 ± 1.295	-66.1%	0.01
Creatinine (mg/dL)	0.45 ± 0.055	0.44 ± 0.074	0.1075 ± 0.011	-2.2%	0.05
Uric Acid (mg/dL)	0.4 ± 0.0	1.02 ± 0.18	6.80 ± 2.0260	+155%	0.01
ALP (IU/ml)	41.25 ± 5.5	24.25 ± 3.879	14.5 ± 1.0307	+70.1%	0.01
AST (IU/ml)	94.95 ± 37.7	45.75 ± 2.208	11.73 ± 2.348	+107.5%	0.01
ALT (IU/ml)	81.24 ± 40.6	51.5 ± 7.258	6.475 ± 0.468	+57.7%	0.05
Calcium (mg/dL)	7.25 ± 0.95	9.85 ± 1.27	11.25 ± 1.34	+35.9%	0.01
Iron (µg/dL)	30.2 ± 3.7	56.3 ± 4.2	82.4 ± 6.8	+86.4%	0.01
Zinc (µg/dL)	45.7 ± 5.1	72.9 ± 7.4	89.6 ± 8.2	+59.5%	0.01
Magnesium ) mg/dL)	1.4 ± 0.2	2.3 ± 0.3	2.6 ± 0.35	+64.3%	0.01

 

Table 4: Scoring index for biochemical parameters before and after treatment with spirulina.

Biochemical Parameter	Score Before Treatment	Score After Treatment	% Improvement	p- value ≤0.05
Urea (mg/dL)	4	2	50.0%	0.01
Creatinine (mg/dL)	3	2	33.3%	0.05
Uric Acid (mg/dL)	3	4	-33.3%	0.07
ALP (IU/ml)	3	4	-33.3%	0.09
AST (IU/ml)	3	4	-33.3%	0.08
ALT (IU/ml)	3	4	-33.3%	0.10
Calcium (mg/dL)	2	2	0%	1.00
Iron (µg/dL)	2	2	0%	1.00
Zinc (µg/dL)	2	2	0%	1.00
Magnesium (mg/dL)	2	2	0%	1.00

 

The biochemical parameter scores Table 4, before and after treatment with spirulina reveal a range of significant changes. Accordingly, spirulina treatment may have a positive impact on kidney function, as evidenced by the significant improvement in urea and creatinine levels in blood samples. However, the observed decline in some liver function markers warrants further investigation.

Initially, high urea levels indicated renal impairment, but these levels showed a significant reduction post-treatment. Elevated creatinine levels, which also suggested renal issues, improved slightly after treatment. However, elevated uric acid levels, which could indicate possible dysfunction, increased after treatment.

 

Similarly, the levels of alkaline phosphatase (ALP), which were elevated before treatment and suggested liver or bone issues, rose post-treatment. The levels of aspartate aminotransferase (AST) and alanine aminotransferase (ALT), both markers of liver damage, also decreased after treatment, suggesting a significant improvement condition for parenchyma of liver.

In contrast, calcium, iron, zinc, and magnesium levels were within the normal range both before and after treatment, showing no significant change. Even though some parameters improved, others, particularly those related to liver function and kidney health, showed worsening conditions post-treatment.

Histopathological Study

Before treatment, bone tissue from animals suffering from lead poisoning exhibited several notable histopathological changes like irregular and poorly organized bone trabeculae, with a significant gap between the bone edge and the bone marrow Figure 1A. Imbalance in bone marrow formation, myelofibrosis and excessive osteoid deposition, that indicating to the abnormal bone matrix formation Figure 1B, 1C and 1D.

After treatment, the histopathological appearance of bone tissue improved significantly, Figure 1E, 1F and 1G, depict bone from healthy animals, showing normal bone structure and marrow composition. In Figure 1E, reveals a bone section with a completely filled marrow cavity and normal cortical bone thickness, while Figure 1F, 1G and 1H, illustrate well-organized bone trabeculae and healthy marrow with various developmental stages. These post-treatment images highlight a restoration of normal bone architecture and marrow health, indicating a successful recovery from the lead-induced damage.

The measurements of bone structural for animals affected by lead poisoning, the width of trabeculae was (44.047 ± 2.134) mm, indicating that the trabeculae were relatively narrow. The length of the trabeculae was (184.793 ± 11.933) mm, reflecting a shortened trabecular length due to lead-induced damage. The thickness of the cortical bone was (243.462 ± 13.572) mm, (Table 5) suggesting abnormal thickening.

Following treatment, these parameters showed significant improvement. The width of trabeculae increased to (114.659 ± 3.681) mm, indicating that the trabeculae had become wider and more normalized. The length of trabeculae rose dramatically to (949.613±15.639) mm, demonstrating substantial recovery in bone structure. While, the thickness of the cortical bone decreased to (138.837± 15.307) mm, (Table 5) reflecting a normalization of bone thickness that had been disrupted by lead poisoning. These changes highlight the effectiveness of the treatment in restoring bone structure and function.

 

Table 5: Measurements of bone structural in animal’s groups before and after treatment with spirulina.

Criteria	Groups of Animals
	Before Treatment	After Treatment
Width of trabeculae	44.047±2.134	114.659±3.681
Length of trabeculae	184.793±11.933	949.613±15.639
Thickness of the cortical bone	243.462±13.572	138.837±15.307

 

DISCUSSION

In our study, the concentration of spirulina showed a significant effect and increase in liver enzymes after treatment of the group of mice exposed to lead poisoning, and we have shown this in the results section in Table 3, and this confirmed the high activity of spirulina in detoxifying lead after treatment.

Spirulina is a blue-green alga that has been used as a dietary supplement for centuries (Matufi and Choopani, 2020; Vonshak and Richmond, 1988). Previous studies highlighted that spirulina, a cyanobacterium dense in nutrients and antioxidants, demonstrates substantial promise across diverse applications (Asghari et al., 2016). These include nutritional supplementation for both humans and animals, and potential therapeutic advantages in mitigating and treating specific diseases (AlFadhly et al., 2022). More studies report that spirulina’s standing as a valuable source of antioxidants, bolstering its potential contribution to human health and disease prevention (Verma et al., 2024). So, this research investigated the impact of lead toxicity on bone marrow function in the forelimbs and hind limbs and liver functions.

Current scientific knowledge has shown that spirulina has a number of health benefits, including boosting the immune system, reducing inflammation, and lowering cholesterol levels (Wu et al., 2016). Also, spirulina is also a good source of protein, vitamins, and minerals (Soni et al., 2017). Therefore, this study used a specific dose of spirulina to find out effects of lead toxicity and determine the optimal therapeutic regimen.

Several research reported that spirulina may be enhancing the functions of the liver and kidneys by making use of its antioxidative and anti-inflammatory properties existing within it (Comparison of antioxidant activity in various spirulina containing products and factors affecting it). So, in multiple animal models it has been shown that spirulina reduces plasma and hepatic total cholesterol and total triglyceride levels, and also cholesterol and triglyceride levels in the LDL fraction (1. Hypolipidemic effect and activation of Lecithin Cholesterol Acyl Transferase (LCAT) by aqueous extract of Spirulina platensis during toxicological investigation) 2. Effects of fish oil and spirulina on oxidative stress and inflammation in hypercholesterolemic hamsters). Whereas, studies with human subjects have shown a significant decrease in total cholesterol, LDL-cholesterol, and triglyceride levels, and it has been known that it is capable of regulating lipid metabolism which helps in reducing the chances of developing fatty livers which may be detoxifying that helps by eliminating toxins (Ramamoorthy A, Premakumari S. Effect of supplementation of Spirulina on hypercholesterolemic patients. J Food Sci Technol 1996;33(2):124-8). So, this confirmed that spirulina effect might be regulated metabolism of the liver, detoxication of lead, and restoration of renal function represent the pathways through which these results corroborate our findings of enhanced liver and kidney functions.

Many investigation studies report that lead exposure can occur through various sources, including lead-based paint, contaminated water, and certain occupational settings (Dignam et al., 2019). This exposure can have a significant impact on children, particularly as lead can accumulate in their bodies over extended periods (Tong et al., 2000). For treatment, lead poisoning can be addressed through chelation therapy, a medical approach where medications are given to bind with lead in the bloodstream, and facilitates the body’s elimination of lead through urine (Sears, 2013). Lead toxicity is a serious health concern, especially for children. However, certain micronutrients may offer protection against its harmful effects. Vitamins C and E, for example, have been shown to reduce blood lead levels and potentially improve brain function in exposed children (Mumtaz et al., 2020). Additionally, minerals like zinc and selenium, which play crucial roles in various bodily processes, including antioxidant enzyme production, may also contribute to lower blood lead levels and improved liver and immune function in individuals exposed to lead (Shadab and Afzal, 2021; Rahman et al., 2019). These results agreed with outcomes that confirmed that feeding spirulina for a specific duration could improve the severity of exposure to lead toxicity.

Spirulina is considered as a complete protein source because containing all the essential amino acids necessary for the human body (Fatima and Srivastava, 2017). Additionally, Spirulina is a basic source of vitamins, including A, B1, B2, B3, B6, B12, C, D, E, and K (AlFadhly et al., 2022; Catana et al., 2023) Moreover, it also provides a wealth of minerals such as iron, calcium, magnesium, phosphorus, potassium, zinc, copper, and manganese (Moreira et al., 2013). Furthermore, Spirulina contains gamma-linolenic acid (GLA), an omega-6 fatty acid with anti-inflammatory properties (Kim et al., 2017) with antioxidants like beta-carotene, phycocyanin, and vitamin E (Asghari et al., 2016). These findings strongly suggest that Spirulina holds potential as a beneficial dietary supplement, capable of addressing nutritional deficiencies and protecting the body’s cells from oxidative stress. Our results further support this notion, demonstrating that Spirulina supplementation mitigated the adverse effects of lead exposure in animal models.

Our findings spirulina suggest that supplementation exhibited significant renal and hepatic health-promoting properties in addition to apparent immunomodulatory effects. So, statistical analysis indicated a significant decline in levels of serum urea, creatinine, uric acid, alkaline phosphatase ALP), AST, and ALT in the group receiving Spirulina in comparison to that exposed to lead. Also, serum calcium, iron, and zinc concentrations, were significantly increased for the spirulina group . These outcomes are consistent with the presence of bioactive compounds within Spirulina, which are likely to play a crucial role in its mechanism of action (Gumbo and Nesamvuni, 2017).

However, a slight increase in magnesium levels was observed following Spirulina treatment, although this change was not statistically significant. Therefore, further research is necessary to elucidate the mechanisms through which Spirulina influences magnesium levels.

Our observations revealed that Spirulina supplementation significantly influenced trabecular bone architecture. We observed a significant increase in trabecular width and a decrease in trabecular length. Concurrently, cortical bone thickness decreased following Spirulina treatment. These findings suggest that Spirulina may induce structural changes in spongy bone while potentially contributing to bone density loss in the outer layer of the bone.

Previous research (Ekeuku et al., 2022) has demonstrated multifaceted positive effects of Spirulina on bone health in diabetic rats. Studies have shown that Spirulina supplementation improved bone microarchitecture, increased bone density, and enhanced bone strength compared to metformin.

In the context of microgravity, simulated using hind limb suspension in mice, Spirulina and its derived components (proteins, polysaccharides) significantly preserved bone mass and improved bone density. These beneficial effects were achieved through modulation of key signaling pathways (FoxO/Wnt/β-catenin), reduced oxidative stress, and beneficial alterations in the gut microbiota (Zhang et al., 2025). These findings suggest that Spirulina may exert beneficial effects on liver and kidney function. Additionally, Spirulina consumption could potentially increase cortical bone thickness and mitigate lead toxicity.

Furthermore, studies in young rats with unbalanced diets demonstrated that Spirulina supplementation improved bone growth, enhanced bone microarchitecture, and improved bone mechanical properties (Sides et al., 2021). This was linked to a positive impact on gut microbiota composition, suggesting a beneficial interplay between diet, gut health, and bone development.

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

This study explored Spirulina’s potential to mitigate lead-induced toxicity in an animal model. Results indicated that Spirulina supplementation improved liver and kidney function, and increased in cortical bone thickness. These findings support Spirulina’s potential health benefits, attributed to its antioxidant and other properties. However, further research is needed to understand its impact on bone metabolism and to determine optimal dosage and treatment duration.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors express their sincere gratitude to the Department of Anatomy and Pathology, College of Veterinary Medicine at Al-Qadisiyah University, for their invaluable support and contribution to this research.

NOVELTY STATEMENT

Our study representing the first investigation into the effects of lead toxicity specifically on bone tissue and its subsequent treatment using spirulina, our study’s novelty significantly contributes to the existing body of knowledge and offers new insights into spirulina’s therapeutic potential for lead-induced bone damage. However, more studies are needed. This study investigated the hepatoprotective and renoprotective effects of spirulina extract in a rabbit model of lead poisoning. While previous studies have explored the potential health benefits of spirulina, this research novelty demonstrates its ability to mitigate the adverse effects of lead exposure on multiple organ systems, including the liver, kidneys, and bone, in a mammalian model. Lead-exposed rabbits exhibited significant clinical, biochemical, and histopathological alterations, consistent with known lead toxicity. Spirulina treatment significantly ameliorated these adverse effects, suggesting its potential as a promising adjunct therapy for the management of lead poisoning.

AUTHOR’S CONTRIBUTIONS

Hassaneen Sharoot and Abdulrazzaq B. Kadhim: Conceptualization, Methodology, Investigation, Formal Analysis, Writing - Original Draft Preparation, Visualization.

Nabeel A. Almamoori and Hazem K. Almhanna: Methodology, Investigation, Data Curation, Writing - Review and Editing.

Abdulrazzaq B. Kadhim and Hazem K. Almhanna: Supervision, Project Administration, Funding Acquisition, Writing - Review and Editing.

Conflict of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest, financial or otherwise, that could have influenced the research and publication of this manuscript.

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