Research Article

Seroprevalence and Risk Factors of Peste des Petits Ruminants in Goats from Khipro, District Sanghar, Sindh

Abdul Rehman1, Muhammad Ismail Memon1, Aziz Ahmed Lakho2, Muhammad Usman3, Atif Munir2, Nisar Ahmed Solangi4, Sami Ullah Jan2, Firdous Ali Amir2, Maaz Khan2 and Abdul Kabir5*

1Department of Veterinary Medicine Faculty of Animal Husbandry and Veterinary Sciences Sindh Agriculture University, Tandojam, Pakistan; 2Faculty of Animal Husbandry and Veterinary Sciences, Sindh Agriculture University, Tandojam, Pakistan; 3Department of Livestock Management, University of Veterinary and Animals Sciences, Lahore, Pakistan; 4Department of Animal Reproduction Faculty of Animal Husbandry and Veterinary Sciences Sindh Agriculture University, Tandojam, Pakistan; 5Department of Veterinary Microbiology, Faculty of Animal Husbandry and Veterinary Sciences, Sindh Agriculture University, Tandojam, Pakistan.

Received | April 23, 2025; Accepted | May 09, 2025; Published | June 02, 2025

*Correspondence | Abdul Kabir, Department of Veterinary Microbiology, Faculty of Animal Husbandry and Veterinary Sciences, Sindh Agriculture University, Tandojam, Pakistan; Email: [email protected]

Citation | Rehman A, Memon MI, Lakho AA, Usman M, Munir A, Solangi NA, Jan SU, Amir FA, Khan M, Kabir A (2025). Seroprevalence and risk factors of peste des petits ruminants in goats from Khipro, District Sanghar, Sindh. Res J. Vet. Pract. 13(2): 39-46.

DOI | https://dx.doi.org/10.17582/journal.rjvp/2025/13.2.39.46

ISSN | 2308-2798

Copyright: 2025 by the authors. Licensee ResearchersLinks Ltd, England, UK.

This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

INTRODUCTION

The domestic goat (Capra hircus), a member of the family Bovidae and subfamily Caprinae, is one of the earliest domesticated livestock species, with origins tracing back to wild goats in the Fertile Crescent of the Near East around 10,000 years ago (Zeder, 2008). Goats are raised globally in various production systems, with over 1 billion animals, and are especially important in tropical and subtropical regions (Escareño et al., 2012).

Goat farming plays a vital role in the livelihood of smallholder farmers, particularly in low-income countries, where goats are often referred to as the poor man’s cow due to their ability to thrive in harsh environments and provide meat, milk, fiber, and income (Peacock, 2005; Kosgey and Okeyo, 2007).

Worldwide population of goat is about one billion, and the goat population globally more than double during the last four decades. According to the Food and Agriculture Organization, over 90% of goats are found in developing countries; Asia has the largest proportion of the world’s goat population, followed by Africa (Utaaker et al., 2021). Pakistan ranks third globally, with an estimated goat population of about 80 million (Abdullah et al., 2024). Despite their resilience, goats are vulnerable to numerous infectious diseases that significantly hinder productivity. Among these, Peste des Petits Ruminants (PPR) is considered one of the most devastating viral diseases affecting small ruminants, causing substantial economic losses due to high morbidity and mortality, decreased productivity, and restricted trade (Munir, 2014; OIE, 2021).

PPR is a transboundary viral disease caused by PPR virus (PPRV), a negative-sense, single-stranded RNA virus belonging to the genus Morbillivirus, family Paramyxoviridae (Parida et al., 2015). The disease was first described in Côte d’Ivoire in 1942 and has since spread extensively throughout Africa, the Middle East, and Asia (Baron et al., 2016; Gargadennece and Lallanne, 1942). It was first reported in Pakistan in 1991, and since then, it has become endemic across the country, with recurrent outbreaks particularly in Punjab, Sindh, and Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (Abubakar et al., 2015; Khan et al., 2008).

The virus is transmitted primarily via aerosols, direct contact with infected secretions (nasal, ocular, oral), and contaminated feed or water (Albina et al., 2013). Clinical signs of PPR include high fever, nasal and ocular discharges, stomatitis, pneumonia, severe diarrhea, and often death within a few days (Kabir et al., 2019). Morbidity may cross 90%, while mortality typically ranges between 50% and 80% in naïve populations (Kabir et al., 2020; Abubakar et al., 2008). Although both sheep and goats are susceptible, goats tend to exhibit more severe clinical signs and higher case fatality rates (Abubakar et al., 2015; Truong et al., 2014; Ahmed, 2020). The disease is most prevalent during periods of climatic stress, such as the rainy season or during winter when animals are housed closely together (Ahmed, 2020; Salih et al., 2014; Tenuche et al., 2023).

Post-mortem lesions often include Ulcerative to necrotic stomatitis, bronchopneumonia, and “zebra-striping” of the colon due to hemorrhagic lesions (Parida et al., 2015; Yousaf et al., 2023). These findings, along with clinical history and laboratory testing, help differentiate PPR from diseases such as bluetongue, Foot and Mouth Disease, contagious caprine pleuropneumonia (CCPP), contagious Ecthyma, contagious pustular stomatitis and sheep/goat pox (Yousaf et al., 2023; Kamal and El-Sayed, 2019).

Diagnosis is confirmed using laboratory tests such as competitive ELISA (cELISA), real-time PCR, and virus isolation, antigen and antibody detection, and molecular approaches all are used in diagnosis (Yousaf et al., 2023; Kamal and El-Sayed, 2019). Although no antiviral treatment exists, supportive therapy and the control of secondary bacterial infections can reduce mortality (Kabir et al., 2019; Ayaz et al., 1997; Abubakar and Irfan, 2014). Vaccination remains the most effective control measure, with live attenuated vaccines offering long-lasting immunity (Zhao et al., 2021; Liu et al., 2014).

The socioeconomic burden of PPR is significant. In Pakistan alone, estimated annual losses exceed PKR 20.5 billion due to deaths, reduced production, and trade limitations (Abera, 2023). As a result, the FAO and OIE have launched a global eradication program aiming to eliminate PPR by 2030 (Njeumi et al., 2015).

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Study area and experimental design

This study was conducted in Khipro Tehsil of Sanghar District, Sindh Province, Pakistan. A total of 180 blood serum samples were randomly collected from goats exhibiting clinical signs suggestive of PPR Goats were selected using simple random sampling from various herds across the Union Councils. The samples were obtained from goats across 14 Union Councils, namely Khipro, Hathungo, Bhopi, Qazi Faiz Muhammad, Khori, Hafizabad, Dhilyar, Hamzo Dars, Khahi, Roonjho, Kamil Hingoro, Bilal Hingorjo, Banko Chanihon, and Ranak Dahar.

Goats were categorized based on clinical condition (clinical, para-clinical, and gross pathological) and demographic characteristics including age and sex. The age groups included: 0–4 months (suckling), 4–12 months (young), and >12 months (adults), further divided into males and females. Clinical signs observed in suspected animals included fever, diarrhea, oculo-nasal discharge, coughing, dehydration, oral lesions, and respiratory distress. Dead animals were subjected to postmortem examination with focus on respiratory and gastrointestinal lesions.

Sample collection and transport

From each goat, 5 mL of blood was aseptically collected from the jugular vein using disposable syringes. The blood samples were transferred to sterile vacutainer tubes without anticoagulant. After clotting, serum was separated by allowing the tubes to stand for 3 hours at ambient temperature and then stored at 4 °C. All serum samples were maintained under cold chain and submitted to the Central Veterinary Diagnostic Laboratory (CVDL), Tandojam, for PPRV antibody detection.

Competitive enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (C-ELISA)

Detection of PPRV-specific antibodies in serum samples was performed using a commercial competitive ELISA kit (ID Screen® PPR Competition, IDvet, Grabels, France) following the manufacturer’s instructions. In brief, 25 µL of dilution buffer and 50 µL of each test serum, positive control, and negative control were added to appropriate wells in a pre-coated microtiter plate. The plate was incubated at 37±3°C for 45±4 minutes to facilitate binding. After incubation, the wells were washed three times with 300 µL of wash buffer to remove unbound substances.

Subsequently, 100 µL of anti-PPRV monoclonal antibody conjugated to peroxidase was added to each well and incubated for 30 minutes at 21±5°C. A second wash step was performed to remove excess conjugate. Then, 100 µL of substrate solution (TMB) was dispensed into each well and incubated in the dark at 21±5°C for 15±2 minutes. The enzymatic reaction was stopped by adding 100 µL of stop solution, and the optical density (OD) was measured at 450 nm using a microplate reader.

Results were interpreted based on the competition percentage (S/N%). Samples with S/N% ≤ 50% were considered positive, those >60% were negative, and those between 51% and 59% were considered doubtful and retested for confirmation.

Statistical analysis

Data were analyzed using the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS), version 24.0 (IBM Corp., Armonk, NY, USA). Descriptive statistics were used to summarize the prevalence of PPRV antibodies across different age groups, sex, and clinical categories.

RESULTS

Seroprevalence of PPRV in goats

A total of 180 serum samples were tested to determine the seroprevalence of Peste des Petits Ruminants Virus (PPRV) in goats from 14 union councils of Khipro, District Sanghar, Sindh. The sampled areas included Khipro, Hathungo, Bhopi, Qazi Faiz Muhammad, Khori, Hafizabad, Dhilyar, Hamzo Dars, Khahi, Roonjho, Kamil Hingoro, Bilal Hingorjo, Banko Chanihon, and Ranak Dahar. Goats exhibiting clinical signs of PPR, such as coughing, diarrhea, stomatitis, pyrexia, and oculo-nasal discharge, were selected for sampling. Each animal was bled via jugular venipuncture, and serum was separated and stored at −20 °C until testing. All serum samples were submitted to the Virology Section of the Central Veterinary Diagnostic Laboratory in Tandojam, where competitive ELISA (c-ELISA) was used for the detection of PPRV antibodies.

Area-wise seroprevalence

The analysis revealed that the highest seroprevalence (72.54%) was recorded in non-irrigated areas, whereas irrigated regions showed a lower prevalence (45.73%) (Figure 1). This suggests an influence of environmental and management conditions on disease exposure.

 

Gender-wise seroprevalence

Among the tested animals, female goats demonstrated a higher seroprevalence rate (59.85%) compared to males (34.88%) (Figure 2). This discrepancy may reflect differences in exposure, immunity, or management practices between sexes.

 

Age-wise seroprevalence

Seroprevalence was assessed across three age groups. Goats older than 12 months had the highest seropositivity (73.33%), followed by those aged 0–4 months (46.00%) and 4–12 months (32.72%) (Figure 3). The results indicate increased exposure with age.

 

Month-wise seroprevalence

Seasonal variation was observed, with the highest seroprevalence recorded in August (67.39%) and the lowest in October (31.88%) (Figure 4), Seasonal variation suggests potential links with climatic factors or animal movement patterns influencing PPRV prevalence.

 

Clinical vs. para-clinical sero-positivity

Clinically suspected animals exhibited a higher seropositivity rate (61.97%) compared to para-clinical (subclinical) cases (21.05%) (Figure 4 and Table 1). Clinically positive animals were closely monitored for 14 days, and symptoms such as depression, nasal discharge, and diarrhea were recorded.

 

Table 1: Clinical and para-clinical sero-prevalence of PPR in goats of Khipro, district Sanghar.

Clinical			Para-clinical
No. of samples	No. of positive samples	Percentage	No. of sample	No. of positive sample	Percentage
142	88	61.97%	38	8	21.05%

 

Clinical findings

Detailed clinical monitoring was performed on a herd of nine goats in Khori village, which tested positive for PPRV. Over a two-week period, clinical signs were scored on a severity scale (0–3). A progressive increase in body temperature was noted from day 1 (104.44 °F) to a peak on day 5 (105.38 °F), followed by a gradual decline to 103.18 °F by Day 10 (Figure 5).

 

Pulse and respiration rates peaked on Day 4 at 120 BPM and 50 RPM, respectively (Figures 6, 7). Serous to mucopurulent nasal discharge intensified by Day 10, with complete nostril obstruction observed (Figure 12). Mucoid diarrhea was prominent between Days 6 and 11 (Figure 9), dehydration peaked from Days 6 to 10 (Figure 10), and stomatitis with labial scabs was most severe from Days 8 to 11 (Figure 8). Coughing intensified between Days 6 and 13 (Figure 11).

 

Gross pathological lesions

Postmortem examination of four PPRV-positive goats revealed 45% mortality among clinically affected animals. Lesions included excoriation of lips, nasal and oral erosions, tracheal exudates, and pneumonic lungs with fibrous adhesions to the rib cage. Three animals showed right anterior lobe consolidation, while one showed left lobe involvement. One goat had a focal lung abscess. Splenic congestion and atrophy were common, along with intestinal hemorrhages and congested mesenteric lymph nodes. Erosions of the vulval mucosa were seen in two cases that died in the acute phase of disease (Table 2).

 

Table 2: Postmortem findings of died animals during study.

Postmortem findings	Goat 1	Goat 2	Goat 3	Goat 4	Average
Necrotic stomatitis	2	2	1	1	1.5
Hyperemia and froth in trachea and bronchi	3	1	2	2	2
Pneumonic lungs	2	3	3	2	2.5
Enlarged spleen	2	1	2	2	1.75
Enlarged mesenteric lymph nodes	1	1	2	0	1
Hemorrhages in intestine	1	2	1	0	1

 

Pathological findings were scored as nil (0), light (1), moderate (2) and severe (3) according to its severity.

 

 

 

 

 

 

DISCUSSION

This study investigated the seroprevalence of Peste des Petits Ruminants (PPR) in goats from Taluka Khipro, District Sanghar, using a competitive ELISA (c-ELISA). The results revealed a high seroprevalence in non-irrigated areas (72.54%) compared to irrigated zones (45.73%), indicating a significant influence of environmental conditions on the spread of PPR.

 

Our findings align with the study by Nizamani et al. (2015), who reported a seroprevalence of 69.3% in the non-irrigated, hilly regions of Kohistan, District Dadu. In contrast, lower rates were reported in irrigated areas such as Hyderabad (47.1%) and Khairpur (40.7%). This difference may be due to arid climates, reduced nutritional availability, and greater mobility of animals in desert areas, all of which contribute to increased disease transmission.

Vaccination is widely recognized as the primary tool for PPR prevention and control. However, a major challenge in Pakistan is inadequate vaccine coverage, especially in remote pastoral communities. According to Khan et al. (2007), nearly 70–80% of the goat population remains at Risk due to limited immunization campaigns and lack of regular vaccination schedules. Environmental factors such as humidity, rainfall, and stressful conditions caused by seasonal migrations also contribute significantly to outbreak occurrences (Khan et al., 2007).

The movement of animals across long distances, often in search of food and water, increases exposure to the virus. The resultant fatigue and stress compromise immunity and create ideal conditions for viral transmission (Rahman et al., 2004). Introducing new animals into existing herds especially those sourced from endemic regions has also been shown to accelerate the spread of the disease (Zahur et al., 2011).

Gender-wise, a higher seroprevalence was observed in female goats (59.85%) compared to males (34.88%). This result is consistent with the findings of Kihu et al. (2015) and Aziz-ul-Rahman et al. (2016), who also reported a greater susceptibility in females, possibly due to stress from reproductive cycles, pregnancy, and lactation all of which suppress immune responses.

Age was also a significant factor. Adult goats (>12 months) showed the highest seroprevalence (73.33%), followed by kids aged 4–12 months (32.72%), and suckling kids (0–4 months) at 46.0%. These findings are consistent with those of Zahur et al. (2011) and Aziz-ul-Rahman et al. (2016), who observed that adults often test positive due to prior exposure to the virus or vaccination, whereas younger animals are more likely to be negative.

Seroprevalence was highest during August (67.39%), followed by September (66.15%), and declined in October (31.88%). These results align with observations by Sarker and Islam (2011), who found PPR outbreaks to be more frequent during the monsoon season due to increased humidity, muddy conditions, and poor ventilation in animal shelters. Similar seasonal patterns were mentioned by Kabir et al. (2019).

The nutritional status and socio-economic conditions of farmers also influence the spread and impact of PPR. In Khipro, poor fodder availability, limited veterinary outreach, and low awareness levels among livestock keepers likely contributed to high infection rates (Khan et al., 2007).

Clinically infected animals showed hallmark symptoms including high fever, mucopurulent nasal discharge, ocular exudate, oral lesions, respiratory distress, and diarrhea. Clinical signs peaked between days 4 to 9 post-infection, which is consistent with findings by Balamurugan et al. (2014) and Radostits et al. (2000). These signs reflect the virus’s affinity for epithelial tissues, resulting in inflammation and necrosis.

Serologically, clinically infected animals showed higher antibody levels (61.97%) compared to para-clinical cases (21.05%), corroborating the observations of (Haji et al., 2007), who found stronger seropositive responses in symptomatic goats.

Overall, our study confirms the endemicity of PPR in desert regions like Khipro and highlights the urgent need for targeted vaccination campaigns, farmer education, and improved veterinary outreach. Factors such as gender, age, seasonal variations, and migration patterns must be considered in designing effective control programs.

CONCLUSIONS

This study highlights a high seroprevalence of Peste des Petits Ruminants (PPR) in goats from Taluka Khipro, District Sanghar, with significant variations based on ecological zone, age, sex, and season. Goats in non-irrigated desert areas showed a higher seroprevalence, suggesting that arid environmental conditions, animal mobility, and limited veterinary access contribute to increased disease transmission. Female and adult goats were more frequently seropositive, likely due to longer exposure times and physiological stressors. Clinical, para-clinical, and pathological observations confirmed that PPR remains a pressing health threat, particularly during the monsoon season when the risk of outbreaks is elevated. The study also confirms that c-ELISA is an effective diagnostic tool for detecting PPR antibodies in both symptomatic and asymptomatic animals. Given the endemic nature of PPR in the region, there is an urgent need for sustained and targeted vaccination campaigns, farmer education on disease prevention, and improved veterinary outreach services especially in remote desert zones. These efforts are essential to prevent economic losses, safeguard animal health, and move toward the global goal of PPR eradication by 2030.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We thank Ali Raza Nizamani Central Veterinary Diagnostic Laboratory (CVDL) for his help in sample collections.

NOVELTY STATEMENT

This is the first documented study assessing the seroprevalence and clinical pathology of Peste des Petits Ruminants (PPR) in goats from Taluka Khipro, District Sanghar, a semi-arid region of Sindh, Pakistan. The research uniquely combines serological evidence using c-ELISA with clinical, para-clinical, and pathological findings, offering comprehensive insights into disease dynamics. The study also identifies ecological zone-specific risk patterns, emphasizing higher PPR occurrence in non-irrigated desert areas, which has not been previously reported in the literature. These findings are crucial for designing area-specific control strategies and vaccination policies in dryland pastoral systems.

AUTHOR’S CONTRIBUTION

AK and AR have equal contribution to this research work. Additionally, AK analysed the data and wrote the paper. MU, AAL and NAS have completed the sampling and performed the CMT test. AK, and MZ have performed the biochemical tests. MIM and SUJ, FAA has designed the study and funded the research work.

Conflict of interest

The authors have declared no conflict of interest.

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