Research Article

Anti-Psoriasis Activity of Ethanolic Extract of Sorghum (Sorghum bicolor) in Imiquimod-Induced Mouse Model

Oliviti Natali1,2*, I. Nyoman Ehrich Lister3, Ali Napiah Nasution3, Maya Sari Mutia4

1Doctoral Program, Faculty of Medicine, Dentistry, and Health Science, Universitas Prima Indonesia, Medan 20118, Indonesia; 2Department of Dermatology and Venereology, Faculty of Medicine, Dentistry, and Health Science, Universitas Prima Indonesia, Medan 20118, Indonesia; 3Department of Family Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Dentistry, and Health Science, Universitas Prima Indonesia, Medan 20118, Indonesia; 4Department of Histology, Faculty of Medicine, Dentistry and Health Science, Universitas Prima Indonesia, Medan 20118, Indonesia.

Received | May 11, 2025; Accepted | June 20, 2025; Published | July 11, 2025

*Correspondence | Oliviti Natali, Doctoral Program, Faculty of Medicine, Dentistry, and Health Science, Universitas Prima Indonesia, Medan 20118, Indonesia; Email: [email protected]

Citation | Natali O, Lister INE, Nasution AN, Mutia MS (2025). Anti-psoriasis activity of ethanolic extract of sorghum (Sorghum bicolor) in imiquimod-induced mouse model. Adv. Anim. Vet. Sci. 13(8): 1716-1724.

DOI | https://dx.doi.org/10.17582/journal.aavs/2025/13.8.1716.1724

ISSN (Online) | 2307-8316; ISSN (Print) | 2309-3331

Copyright: 2025 by the authors. Licensee ResearchersLinks Ltd, England, UK.

This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

INTRODUCTION

Psoriasis is a chronic, immune-mediated dermatological condition marked by keratinocyte hyperproliferation, persistent inflammation, and the development of psoriatic plaques. The pathogenesis is closely linked to immune dysregulation, specifically the hyperactivation of the IL-23/IL-17 axis and proinflammatory cytokines like TNF-α and IL-17, which facilitate keratinocyte proliferation, epidermal thickening, and inflammatory cell infiltration (Man et al., 2023; Dascălu et al., 2024). Collectively, these mechanisms contribute to the persistence and intensity of psoriasis. Moreover, oxidative stress intensifies the illness by enhancing inflammation and compromising antioxidant defences, resulting in additional cellular damage (Pleńkowska et al., 2020).

Treatments for psoriasis, including topical corticosteroids, vitamin D analogues, phototherapy, systemic immunosuppressants, and biologic therapies targeting IL-17 or TNF-α, are frequently constrained by adverse effects, long-term dangers, or elevated costs (Uva et al., 2012; Miao et al., 2025). As a result, there is increasing interest in investigating safer, more cost-effective alternatives, especially natural compounds with antioxidant and immunomodulatory characteristics.

In recent years, interest has grown in exploring natural products with anti-inflammatory effect and antioxidant properties for the treatment of skin diseases. Many plant-derived phytochemicals have shown promise in modulating immune responses and reducing oxidative stress, both of which are key elements in the pathophysiology of psoriasis (Lin and Huang, 2016; Radu et al., 2024). Among these, S. bicolor a cereal grain commonly consumed in many parts of the world has emerged as a functional food with potential pharmacological benefits. Traditionally known for its nutritional value, S. bicolor is rich in secondary metabolites such as polyphenols, flavonoids, tannins, saponins, and phytosterols, which have demonstrated antioxidant, antibacterial, and anti-inflammatory activities in various studies (Espitia-Hernández et al., 2022; Birhanu, 2021). Moreover, Ademiluyi et al. (2014) demonstrated that S. bicolor leaf sheath extract possesses strong antioxidant properties, as it protected against cisplatin-induced hepatotoxicity and oxidative stress in rats by enhancing antioxidant enzyme activities, such as superoxide dismutase and catalase. These findings highlight the potential of S. bicolor to mitigate oxidative damage, which is highly relevant to psoriasis, where increased oxidative stress plays a pivotal role in keratinocyte hyperproliferation, cytokine overexpression, and chronic inflammation.

Despite its recognised health benefits, the application of S. bicolor in relation to psoriasis has not been extensively studied. Most previous investigations have concentrated on its application in metabolic or infectious disorders, with limited research evaluating its impact on cytokine modulation or the restoration of skin barrier function in inflammatory dermatoses (Castro-Jácome et al., 2021). This indicates a notable research deficiency, especially considering the intersection of oxidative stress, immunological activation, and keratinocyte impairment seen in psoriasis, alongside the documented biological effects of S. bicolor components. This study was conducted to examine the anti-psoriasis efficacy of ethanolic extract from S. bicolor using an IMQ-induced psoriasis-like animal. The psoriasis model has been well-verified since it replicates the clinical and histological characteristics of human plaque psoriasis (Flutter and Nestle, 2013). The topical treatment of IMQ results in keratinocyte hyperproliferation, acanthosis, parakeratosis, and immune cell infiltration, making it an appropriate model for evaluating anti-psoriasis effect.

Based on these findings, we hypothesize that ethanolic extract of S. bicolor exerts anti-psoriasis effects by modulating oxidative stress and inflammatory cytokine pathways (IL-17, TNF-α), leading to improved skin lesion outcomes. The study assessed the phytochemical composition and antioxidant activity of S. bicolor extract, followed by in vivo evaluations using PASI scoring, skin histology, cytokine profiling (IL-17, TNF-α), and SOD measurement. This research highlights S. bicolor as a promising antioxidant and immunomodulatory agent for psoriasis management, offering a potential plant-based alternative for chronic skin conditions.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Plant Collection and Extract Preparation

Sorghum samples were sourced from a plantation located in Jombang, West Java, Indonesia. The harvested sorghum was cleaned, uniformly cut, and subsequently dried in a cabinet dryer maintained at 50°C. Samples were spaced adequately to ensure optimal airflow, and drying progress was monitored to avoid both over-drying and under-drying. Once dried, the samples were stored in airtight containers placed in a cool, dark environment to preserve their phytochemical properties. Authentication of the sorghum sample was verified by the Herbarium Medanense under Approval Number: 201/MEDA/2025. For extraction, 300 g of dried sorghum powder underwent maceration using a solvent (ethanol:water, 70:30 v/v) at 25°C under continuous agitation. After 24 hours, the extract was filtered. This extraction procedure was repeated twice to maximize yield, and the filtrates were pooled. The combined filtrate were concentrated under vaccum pressure at 38°C using a rotary evaporator to obtain the thick extract (Munthe et al., 2023).

Phytochemical Constituent Analysis

Phytochemical constituents were identified using Gas Chromatography–Mass Spectrometry (GC-MS) as described previously (Marianne et al., 2021). Furthermore, qualitative analyses were carried out to screen the presence of major phytochemical groups, including steroids, alkaloids, tannins, flavonoids, triterpenoids, glycosides, and saponins, following standardized protocols (Banu and Cathrine, 2015). The total flavonoids and phenol concentration were detected using a colorimetric procedure (Rebaya et al., 2015).

Determination of DPPH Radical Scavenging Activity

1 mL of DPPH solution was mixed with 1 mL of the sample solutions at concentrations of 0, 50, 100, 150, 200, and 250 µg/mL. Subsequently, 3 mL of methanol was added to each mixture. The samples were then vigorously stirred and kept in the dark for 30 minutes. Following incubation, the absorbance of the samples was recorded at 513 nm using a UV-Visible spectrophotometer. Antioxidant potential was evaluated by plotting a linear regression curve, correlating sample concentration (x-axis) with percentage inhibition (y-axis). The regression formula (y = bx + a) was used to determine the IC₅₀ value, which represents the concentration of the extract which needed to scavenge 50% of DPPH radicals (Rebaya et al., 2015).

Treatment Design of In vivo Study

In this study, thirty male BALB/c mice were randomly selected into six groups (n = 5 per group) to evaluate the therapeutic effects of S. bicolor extract on imiquimod-induced psoriasis (Cai et al., 2023). Group I performed as the normal control and received only petroleum gel. Group II was induced with imiquimod (IMQ) without any treatment. Group III received IMQ induction and was treated with methotrexate at a dose of 0.2 mg/kg body weight (BW) orally once daily as the standard treatment. Groups IV, V, and VI were all IMQ-induced and received oral administration of S. bicolor extract at doses of 70, 140, and 210 mg/kg BW, respectively. The therapeutic efficacy was assessed through clinical scoring using the Psoriasis Area and Severity Index (PASI), histopathological examination with Trozak’s Score, cytokine analysis for IL-17 and TNF-α, moreover, the level of SOD also determined. The doses of S. bicolor extract (70, 140, 210 mg/kg BW) were selected based on a preliminary dose-orientation study to ensure safe and effective concentrations for in vivo testing. The low dose (70 mg/kg BW) served as a baseline, while the medium (140 mg/kg BW) and high (210 mg/kg BW) doses explored increasing therapeutic potential without exceeding safety limits. Moreover, this research has been approved by the Health Research Ethics Committee of Universitas Prima Indonesia, as stated in the approval letter No. 048/KEPK/UNPRI/X/2024.

Statistical Analysis

Data distribution was first assessed using the Shapiro–Wilk normality test. If the data followed a normal distribution, one-way ANOVA was performed, followed by Tukey’s post hoc test for multiple comparisons. If the data were non-normally distributed, the Kruskal–Wallis test was used, followed by Dunn’s post hoc test. Significance was set at p < 0.05. All analyses were performed using GraphPad Prism version 9.0.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Phytochemical Screening

The phytochemical analysis revealed that sorghum extract comprises several bioactive components, such as alkaloids, flavonoids, tannins, saponins, steroids, and terpenoids. Table 1 illustrates the results of the phytochemical test of sorghum extract.

 

Table 1: Phytochemical content in sorghum extract.

No	Phytochemical Constituent	Results
1	Alkaloid	+
2	Saponins	+
3	Tannin	+
4	Flavonoid	+
5	Steroids/ Terpenoids	+

 

Sorghum bicolor extract contains various phytochemicals that contribute to its anti-psoriasis effects. Alkaloids exhibit anti-inflammatory activity by blocking the inflammatory mediators and decreasing keratinocyte proliferation (Rao et al., 2018). Flavonoids act as strong antioxidants, lowering ROS and modulating immune responses to improve skin damage (Xian et al., 2021). Tannins offer astringent and inflammatory suppression effects that help reduce redness and irritation while accelerating skin lesion healing (Thomas et al., 1985). Polyphenols inhibit the NF-κB pathway involved in inflammation and enhance skin hydration and barrier function (Farhan, 2024). Saponins also modulate immune responses by downregulating pro-inflammatory cytokines involved in psoriasis pathogenesis (Wijesekara et al., 2024).

Total Flavonoid, Phenolic Content and Antioxidant Activity of Sorghum bicolor Extract

The results presented in Table 2 show that S. bicolor extract contains high levels of total flavonoids (6.36 mg QE/g) and phenolic compounds (81.85 mg GAE/g), confirming its potential as natural antioxidants. Additionally, the extract demonstrated significant antioxidant activity, with an IC₅₀ value of 80.13 µg/mL, indicating its ability to scavenge free radicals. These findings support the role of S. bicolor as a promising candidate for antioxidant-based therapy, particularly in inflammatory skin conditions such as psoriasis.

 

Table 2: Total flavonoid, phenolic content and antioxidant activity.

Parameter	Regression Equation	Result (Mean ± SD)
Total Flavonoid (mg QE/g)	Y = 0.09920X – 0.0021	6.36 mg QE/g extract
Total Phenol (mg GAE/g)	Y = 0.00138X + 0.0404	81.85 mg GAE/g extract
Antioxidant Activity (IC₅₀)	y = 10.343x + 4.6597 (R = 0.9945)	IC₅₀ = 80.13 µg/mL

 

Phytochemical analysis of S. bicolor extract revealed substantial levels of flavonoids and phenolic compounds, recognised for their potent antioxidant and anti-inflammatory capabilities. Quantitatively, the extract contained 6.36 mg QE/g of total flavonoids and 81.85 mg GAE/g of total phenolics. These bioactive constituents are important in the context of psoriasis, a chronic skin disease closely linked to oxidative stress and immune dysregulation. Flavonoids are known to scavenge free radicals and modulate immune responses by inhibiting inflammatory pathways involved in psoriasis pathogenesis, such as NF-κB. Similarly, phenolic compounds, including tannins and phenolic acids, contribute to the neutralization of ROS and help restore oxidative balance in the skin.

The antioxidant capacity of S. bicolor extract was further supported by a DPPH assay, which produced an IC₅₀ value of 80.13 µg/mL, indicating high antioxidant activity. This suggests a synergistic interaction between flavonoids and phenolics in reducing oxidative stress. Since oxidative stress plays a major role in activating keratinocyte proliferation and inflammatory cytokine production in psoriasis, these findings support the therapeutic relevance of S. bicolor.

Identification of Sorghum Phytochemical Compounds with GC-MS

GC-MS analysis was used to identify phytochemical compounds contained in sorghum extract. The results of the analysis showed the presence of 15 main compounds with different retention times, including alcohols, fatty acids, esters, and other bioactive compounds. The results can be seen in Table 3 and Figure 1.

GC-MS analysis identified a number of compounds with high pharmacological potential. Linoleic acid and Palmitic acid is recognised for its antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties, which are pertinent to the treatment of psoriasis and other inflammatory conditions (de Morais et al., 2017). In addition, α-tocopherol (Vitamin E) is a powerful antioxidant that can protect cells from oxidative damage, which is one of the main factors in the psoriasis pathogenesis (Kharaeva et al., 2009). Moreover, other compounds, such as stigmasta-5,22-dien-3β-ol, are phytosterols that have the potential as natural anti-inflammatory agents (Rocha et al., 2016). Meanwhile, 9,17-octadecadienal, an aldehyde compound, has been reported to have antimicrobial activity (Mehranian et al., 2017) which may help prevent secondary infections in psoriasis skin.This study shows that sorghum extract contains bioactive compounds with various biological activities relevant to psoriasis therapy.

 

Table 3: GC-MS analysis results.

No	Retention time	Name	Molecular Formula	Molecular Weight
1	11.3988	Heptadec-12-yn-1-ol	C17H32O	252.44
2	11.9996	Methylhistamine	C6H11N3	125.17
3	12.3887	Cyclononene	C9H16	124.22
4	13.1609	Bicyclo[13.1.0]hexadecane-2-one	C16H28O	236.39
5	14.1154	Methyl palmitate	C17H34O2	270.45
6	16.8704	Ethyl palmitate	C18H36O2	284.48
7	17.0612	Palmitic acid	C16H32O2	256.42
8	18.1129	Methyl linoleate	C19H34O2	294.47
9	19.9122	Ethyl linoleate	C20H36O2	308.5
10	29.2181	Linoleic acid	C18H32O2	280.45
11	33.39883	Methyl lignocerate	C25H50O2	382.66
12	36.8832	Ethyl lignocerate	C26H52O2	396.69
13	38.8439	9.17-Octadecadienal	C20H38O	294.52
14	40.1236	α-Tocopherol	C29H50O2	430.71
15	43.3118	Stigmata-5,22-dien-3β-ol	C17H32O	252.44

 

 

PASI Score

The Psoriasis Area and Severity Index (PASI) is a standardized scoring system used to assess the severity of psoriasis in animal models and clinical studies. It combines evaluations of erythema (redness), induration (thickness), and desquamation (scaling), each graded on a scale of 0 to 4, with higher scores indicating more severe lesions. After completing the treatment, all groups of mice were subjected to clinical observation and PASI score analysis. The clinical observations are presented in Figure 2, while the PASI score evaluations for each treatment group are illustrated in Figure 3 and summarized in Table 4. The PASI score is measured based on three main parameters: erythema, induration, and scale, which indicate the severity of skin lesions in psoriasis model mice.

 

 

Table 4: PASI score analysis.

Group	Erythema (± SD)	Induration (± SD)	Squama (± SD)	Total Score (± SD)
Group 1 (Normal)	0*	0*	0*	0*
Group 2 (IMQ Only)	1.6±0.55	2.2±0.45	3.0±0	6.8±0.45
Group 3 (IMQ +MTX)	0.6± 0.55*	0.4± 0.55*	1± 0.71*	2 ±1.41*
Group 4 (IMQ+Sorghum Extract 70 mg/kgBW)	1.2± 0.45*	1 ± 0.71*	1.6 ± 0.89*	3.8 ± 1.48*
Group 5 (IMQ+Sorghum Extract 140 mg/kgBW)	1 ± 0*	0.2 ± 0.45*	1.2 ± 0.45*	2.4 ± 0.55*
Group 6 (IMQ+Sorghum Extract 210 mg/kgBW)	0.2 ± 0.45*	0.2 ± 0.45*	1 ± 0*	1.4 ± 0.55*

 

Description: Data presented as Mean ± SD, n =5, * (P<0.05) compared to Group 2.

 

The representative dorsal skin of mice on day 7 of the trials exhibited erythema, scaling, and thickness, which were markedly evident in the model group (b), whereas the treatment groups c (MTX) shown relative improvement in these indications; (d) low dose sorghum; (e) medium dose sorghum; (f) high dose sorghum. In normal group (a) there were no sign of erythema, thickening or scaling.

The severity of psoriasis lesions in each group was assessed using the PASI, based on erythema, induration, and scaling. As shown in Table 4 and Figure 2, Group G2 (IMQ-only) exhibited the highest PASI score (6.8 ± 0.45), indicating severe inflammation. In contrast, Group G6, which received the highest dose of S. bicolor extract (150 mg/kg BW), showed the lowest PASI score (1.4 ± 0.55), approaching the normal group (G1), and the reduction was highly significant (P ≤ 0.0001). Methotrexate-treated mice (G3) also showed a significant decrease in PASI score (2 ± 1.41; P ≤ 0.01) compared to G2, although slightly less effective than the highest sorghum dose. Lower doses of sorghum (G4 and G5) demonstrated dose-dependent improvements, with G5 showing a better reduction than G4. These results support the anti-psoriasis potential of S. bicolor, especially at higher doses. Statistical analysis was conducted using the Kruskal-Wallis test due to non-normal data distribution. The observed improvements are likely attributed to sorghum’s antioxidant and anti-inflammatory compounds, such as flavonoids and polyphenols, which may help reduce keratinocyte proliferation and immune-mediated skin inflammation (Gupta et al., 2024).

Histological Analysis of Skin Tissue and Trozak Score

The results of histological analysis of skin tissue from each group, as shown in Figure 4 with 200x microscope magnification, as well as the Trozak score analysis in Table 5 provide a clear picture of the differences in skin morphology between treatment groups.

 

The histopathological assessment and Trozak score analysis provide strong evidence of the anti-psoriasis effects of S. bicolor extract. In the IMQ-induced group (G2), severe psoriasis features were observed, including marked hyperkeratosis, parakeratosis, acanthosis, rete ridge elongation, and prominent lymphocytic infiltration (Figure 3B). These pathological features are consistent with the typical histology of human psoriasis, where excessive proliferation of keratinocytes and dysregulated immune responses play central roles in disease progression (Nestle et al., 2009).

The Trozak score analysis revealed typical psoriasis-like changes in the IMQ-only group (G2), including rete ridge elongation, dermal papillae edema, perivascular infiltration, granular layer loss, and parakeratosis. Treatment with S. bicolor extract showed dose-dependent improvements, with the highest dose (210 mg/kg BW, G6) significantly reducing histopathological markers of psoriasis (p < 0.05), including rete ridge elongation, dermal papillae changes, and granular layer loss. Parakeratosis was also reduced across treated groups. No munro’s microabscesses or spongiform pustules were observed. These results suggest S. bicolor may restore skin integrity in psoriasis models, though further studies are needed to confirm comparative efficacy against standard treatments.

These therapeutic effects are likely mediated by the flavonoid and polyphenol content of S. bicolor, which have been widely reported to possess anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and immunomodulatory properties (Benson et al., 2013). Flavonoids such as luteolin, apigenin, and quercetin inhibit proinflammatory signaling pathways, including NF-κB and MAPK, thereby reducing cytokine production and keratinocyte proliferation (Csekes and Račková, 2021). Phenolic compounds, including ferulic and caffeic acids, can scavenge ROS, minimizing oxidative damage that contributes to the chronicity of psoriasis (Jamil and Karim, 2024). Additionally, the reduction of munro’s microabscesses and lymphocytic infiltration in the extract-treated groups supports the notion that S. bicolor may suppress neutrophil migration and modulate adaptive immune responses. The highest dose of S. bicolor extract (210 mg/kg BW; G6) demonstrated substantial improvements in PASI and histological scores, approaching the results observed in the methotrexate group (G3). Although methotrexate effectively reduces inflammation by inhibiting dihydrofolate reductase and purine metabolism, it carries risks of hepatotoxicity and immunosuppression when used long-term (Di Martino, 2023). Therefore, S. bicolor extract may offer a safer, plant-based alternative with fewer side effects for chronic use.

 

Cytokine Analysis

Cytokine and antioxidant enzyme analyses provide valuable insights into the mechanistic role of Sorghum bicolor extract in the modulation of psoriasis-related inflammation and oxidative stress. Figure 5 shows three key biomarkers were analyzed: SOD, IL-17, and TNF-α.

 

The highest dosage of S. bicolor extract (210 mg/kg BW; G6) markedly elevated SOD levels relative to the IMQ group (G2) (G6 vs. G2, p = 0.02), although no significant alterations were seen in the 70 mg/kg (G4) and 140 mg/kg (G5) groups (p > 0.05). IL-17 levels exhibited no statistically significant variations across all groups (p > 0.05). Levels of TNF-α were markedly increased in the G5 (140 mg/kg BW; p = 0.04) and G6 (210 mg/kg BW; p = 0.008) groups relative to G2, however no significant difference was noted in the G4 (70 mg/kg BW) group (p > 0.05). These findings are in agreement with prior studies by Ajiboye et al. (2013) and Ademiluyi et al. (2014), which demonstrated that polyphenols and flavonoids in sorghum can enhance antioxidant enzymes such as catalase and SOD, thus reducing oxidative stress in inflammatory conditions.

In contrast, IL-17 plays an important role in the development of psoriasis by promoting keratinocyte proliferation, neutrophil recruitment, and the release of other proinflammatory mediators (Nestle et al., 2009). The IMQ-induced group (G2) exhibited a higher IL-17 level compared to the normal group; however, the difference was not statistically significant. Similarly, treatment with methotrexate (G3) and sorghum extract at various doses (G4, G5, and G6) did not result in significant changes in IL-17 levels when compared to either the IMQ-induced group (G2) or the normal group. Although minor variations were observed among the groups, none reached statistical significance. These findings suggest that S. bicolor may exert limited effects on IL-17 modulation under the conditions of this study, supporting its potential role as an immunomodulatory rather than an immunosuppressive agent. This result suggests that S. bicolor may act as an immunomodulator rather than an immunosuppressant, consistent with previous findings indicating that polyphenol-rich extracts can transiently upregulate immune markers before exerting regulatory effects (Noerhartati and rizal, 2019). Further studies, including time-course analyses and mechanistic assays, are needed to elucidate the relevance of TNF-α modulation in the context of psoriasis.

TNF-α, another key cytokine in psoriasis, showed no significant change in the IMQ group compared to the normal control. However, significant increases in TNF-α were observed in the G5 (140 mg/kg BW) and G6 (210 mg/kg BW) groups compared to G2 (P ≤ 0.05 and P ≤ 0.01, respectively. These increases are not necessarily pathological but may represent a phase of immune priming, where the immune system is activated before adapting toward a regulated, anti-inflammatory state. Taken together, the cytokine profile suggests that S. bicolor does not directly suppress the immune system but likely promotes an early immunostimulatory phase followed by antioxidant-mediated downregulation of inflammation (Ademiluyi et al., 2014). This dual mechanism immune priming followed by oxidative balance restoration may explain the observed improvements in clinical and histological parameters without systemic toxicity. Therefore, S. bicolor extract demonstrates a promising role in psoriasis management by targeting both immune dysregulation and oxidative stress, two key components in psoriasis pathogenesis.

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Sorghum bicolor extract demonstrated anti-psoriasis effects primarily through its antioxidant mechanisms rather than through direct immunosuppression. The extract significantly increased SOD levels, improved skin histological features, and reduced PASI scores, particularly at higher doses. Although no significant effect was observed on IL-17 levels and an elevation in TNF-α was noted, the extract enhanced skin recovery, indicating its potential role as an immunomodulatory agent.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors express their sincere gratitude to the Faculty of Medicine, Dentistry, and Health Science, Universitas Prima Indonesia, for the facilities and support provided throughout this research. Special thanks are extended to the laboratory team and technical staff for their assistance in the animal handling and histopathological analysis. We also acknowledge the valuable input from colleagues during the data interpretation phase. This research was conducted without any external funding.

NOVELTY STATEMENTS

This study is the first to report the anti-psoriatic activity of Sorghum bicolor ethanolic extract using an imiquimod-induced mouse model, highlighting its potential as a natural therapeutic agent for psoriasis.

AUTHOR’S CONTRIBUTIONS

Oliviti Natali conducted the research as part of her doctoral study, including experiment execution, data analysis, and manuscript drafting. I. Nyoman Ehrich Lister and Ali Napiah Nasution provided supervision, conceptual guidance, and critical revision of the manuscript. Maya Sari Mutia contributed to data validation, histopathological interpretation, and editorial assistance.

Conflict of Interest

The authors have declared no conflict of interest.

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