SJA_41_3_1123-1132

Introduction

Pakistan is primarily an agricultural country with vast and fertile plains. The farmers here are very hardworking, working day and night to produce various types of agricultural crops, fruits, and vegetables, not only meeting the country’s food needs but also playing an important role in obtaining foreign exchange for the country. In Pakistan, a wide variety of fruits and vegetables are being grown on a large scale. The country’s economy benefits greatly from the production of high-quality fruits, including kinnow-mandarin, mango, banana, apple, apricot, guava, and vegetables, including potatoes, onions, okra, cauliflower, chilies, cucurbits, etc.

Fruits and vegetables have been an important part of the human diet. Their per-acre productivity and profitability are three to four times higher than other crops. In the world, the per capita annual consumption of fruits and vegetables is 105 kg. According to the WHO, this amount should be at least 73 kg per capita. In Pakistan, however, the consumption is only 50 kg per capita annually (Amjad and Akbar, 2023). One of the main reasons for this low consumption of fruits and vegetables in Pakistan is their low production both in terms of quality and quantity due to many factors including the incidence of various insect pests, diseases and weeds.

Farmers in the Indo-Pak region rely exclusively on the extensive applications of a wide range of agricultural pesticides, including insecticides, fungicides, bactericides and herbicides in order to save their fruits and vegetables from insect pests and diseases. It is inevitable to avoid the use of highly persistent synthetic pesticides in the fruits and vegetables production sector (Rashid et al., 2022).

Major insect pests and diseases of fruits and vegetables in Pakistan

There are many types of insect and mite pests that attack and cause substantial damage to fruit and vegetable crops in the Indo-Pak region. There are two major categories of these arthropod pests. One includes piercing-sucking or haustellate insect pests, which are usually sap- or phloem-feeding pests. Sucking pests suck sap from leaves, stem and fruits, and stunt growth and photosynthesis reaction of plants, while chewing pests prefer tender portion of plant and feed on them and some pests do bore into fruits and lay eggs inside it and cause damage to fruits (Ansari et al., 2019; Ankireddy et al., 2023; Parthasarathy et al., 2024). Some most common and economically important sucking pests include whiteflies, aphids, jassids, citrus psyllids, plant and leaf hoppers, thrips, mango leafhopper, mealybugs, red cotton bug, pentatomid or shield bugs and red spider mites (Figure 1) (Saha et al., 2020; Ghosal, 2022).

The other category is of chewing-biting or mandibulate pests which derive their food by cutting and chewing the plant tissues and by boring into different parts. These insect pests which commonly attack on fruit and vegetable plants include various lepidopterous pests (such as citrus caterpillar, citrus leaf-miner, brinjal fruit borer, cabbage butterfly, diamond-back moth, potato tuber moth and cutworms), dipterous pests (such as fruit flies, fungal gnats, shoot flies), coleopterous pests (such as cerambycid or long-horned stem borers, red pumpkin beetle, hadda beetle) and orthopterous pests (such as grasshoppers, katydids, locusts and field crickets) and different subterranean termite species (Figure 2) (Ali et al., 2023; Ofuya et al., 2023).

Apart from insect and mite pests, fruit and vegetable production in Pakistan is also being hampered by an array of pathogens causing destructive diseases and abnormalities in crop plants and reducing both the quantity and quality of fruits and vegetables. Fruit and vegetable crops are usually susceptible to a variety of diseases caused by various microscopic organisms such as bacteria, fungi, viruses, and nematodes (Balali et al., 2020; Alegbeleye et al., 2022). The most commonly found diseases of fruits and vegetables in Pakistan include Alterneria leaf spots, anthracnose, Rhizoctonia root rot, gummosis, downy and powdery mildews, leaf blights, citrus canker, citrus greening, blotches, necrosis and scabs, and many viral diseases etc. (Shahid et al., 2017).

Pesticidal control of fruit and vegetable pests and diseases in Pakistan

For combating above mentioned arthropod pests and pathogenic diseases and for safeguarding their fruit and vegetable crops, farmers predominantly rely on the recurrent and excessive use of synthetic pesticides. In many areas, they often follow a prophylactic calendar spraying on a daily basis to control the pests and to protect their crops from insect pests and diseases. A wide variety of pesticidal formulations are available in the market for this purpose. These include insecticides (such as organophosphates, carbamates, pyrethroids, neonicotinoids, avermectins, thioureas, oxadiazines, spinosyns, IGRs, phenylpyrroles, sulfoximines, diamides and ketoenoles (Table 1) (Majeed et al., 2021, 2025; Iqbal et al., 2023), fungicides and bactericides (such as metalaxyl, ridomil, fosetyl aluminum, mancozeb, tebuconazole, carbendazim, copper oxychloride, pentachlorophenol, thiophanate methyl, difenconazole and propiconazole etc. (Haq et al., 2020; Ons et al., 2020; Adaskaveg et al., 2022; Gupta and Tripathi, 2024) and herbicides (such as clomazone, sulfurons, metribuzin, fluroxpyr, MCPA, 2,4-triazole-1-carboxamide, pendimethalin, butachlor, glyphosate, S-metolachlor, atrazine and mesotrione etc.) (Wakabayashi and Böger, 2002; Sheryar et al., 2022).

Table 1: Most commonly used synthetic insecticides against different insect pests in fruits and vegetables production sector in Pakistan.

Insecticide name	Brand name (TM/®)	Target Insect Pests
Abamectin *	Alarm	Mites, leaf miner, sucking insects
Acephate	Commando	Aphids, armyworms, caterpillars
Acetamiprid	Mospilan	aphids, jassids, whiteflies
Bifenthrin	Talstar	Grasshoppers, thrips, beetles, aphids
Carbaryl	Sevin	Aphids, fleas, mites
Carbofuran	Furadan	Rice borers, whiteflies, white grubs
Carbosulfan	Advantage	Aphids, plant hoppers, mealybugs
Cartap	Padan	Thrips, whiteflies, jassids
Chlorantraniliprole	Coraygen	Bugs, aphids, lepidopterous larvae
Chlorpyriphos	Lorsban	Termites, mosquitoes, beetles, larvae
Cyantraniliprole	Cyazpyr	Fruit flies, leafhoppers, psyllids, aphids
Cypermethrin	Arrivo	Termites, flies, caterpillars/larvae
Cyromazine	Trigard	Colorado potato beetle, leaf miner
Deltamethrin	Decis Super	Mites, weevils, beetles
Diafenthiuron	Polo	Jassids, diamond-backed moth
Emamectin benzoate *	Proclaim	Bollworms, fruit borers
Esfenvalerate	Sumi-Alpha	Leafhoppers, fruit flies, moths
Fipronil	Regent	Termites, root worms, weevils
Imidacloprid	Confidor	Leafhoppers, aphids
Indoxacarb	Steward	Lepidopterous larvae
Lambda cyhalothrin	Karate	Jassids, thrips, borers, leafhoppers
Lufenuron *	Match	Termites, borers, armyworms, bugs
Methomyl	Lannate	Thrips, beetles
Methoxyfenozide *	Runner	Leaf roller, armyworms, leaf miners
Nitenpyram	Paranol	Sucking insect pests
Pyriproxyfen *	Admiral	Fleas, ticks, mites, mosquitoes
Spinetoram *	Radiant	Psyllids, lepidopterous larvae, fleas
Spinosad *	Tracer	Caterpillars, leaf miners, thrips
Spiromesifen *	Oberon	Whiteflies
Spirotetramat *	Movento	Aphids, psyllids, mealybugs
Tebufenozide *	Topgun	Lepidopterous larvae
Thiamethoxam	Actara	Whiteflies, leafhopper, leaf miners
Trichlorfon	Diptrex	Cricket, leaf miners, leaf hoppers

* softer or biorational insecticides with low- or reduced-toxicity profile and exhibiting more target-specificity.

Non-target effects of pesticide usage in fruits and vegetables

All these agricultural pesticides that are being used to kill, repel, or suppress any insect, mite, pathogen, or weed pest are, no doubt, beneficial to farmers in the short term and help farmers to control the pests of their crops and to enhance the yield of fruits and vegetables. But in the long run, most of these agrochemicals exert a negative impact on the environment and other non-target living organisms, including humans. Residues of these highly persistent and hazardous synthetic pesticides in the fruits and vegetables cause the disruption of beneficial fauna including the elimination of predators and parasites of pests and eradication of useful soil microbes, contamination of environmental resources such as water, soil and air and the human health hazards (Desneux et al., 2007; Syed et al., 2014). When agricultural pesticides are sprayed on fruits and vegetables, their residues can either remain on the surface or penetrate them (Nguyen et al., 2020; Ssemugabo et al., 2022). According to a recent study, the highest levels of pesticide residues are found in fruits such as apples, grapes, peaches, mangoes, guavas, oranges, and strawberries, while vegetables like potatoes, spinach, cucumbers, tomatoes, bell peppers, green chilies, peas, and cauliflower contain them (Del Mar Gómez-Ramos et al., 2020; Mandal et al., 2023). Experts have set maximum residue limits (MRLs) for various agricultural pesticides (Table 2) to ensure that these harmful residues do not pose a risk to human health and to monitor their levels in the treated agricultural produce, including fruits and vegetables (Bhawan, 2022; Murali et al., 2023).

Agricultural pesticidal residues are a potential threat to human health

Although most of the pesticidal material applied to a crop gets decomposed by temperature, UV light, and soil microbes, a considerable portion becomes adsorbed in treated agricultural produce and may cause pesticidal biomagnification when it enters into the food web (Ray and Shaju, 2023; Tison et al., 2024). The residues of agricultural pesticides, particularly of insecticides and fungicides, can lead to various issues in the human body after their accumulation (Alengebawy et al., 2021; Kalyabina et al., 2021). In humans, these pesticidal residues cause many acute and chronic diseases such as headache, eyes stinging, itching, skin burning, chest pain, asthma, kidney failure, cancer, birth defects, infertility, spontaneous abortion, lungs cancer, dementia, Alzheimer and many other neuro-muscular and endocrinal disorders etc. (Upadhayay et al., 2020; Banerjee et al., 2021; Zhou et al., 2024).

Table 2: Pre-harvest interval (PHI: the minimum time (in days) between the last application of a pesticide and when the crop can be harvested) of most commonly used pesticides in fruits and vegetables production sector in Pakistan.

S. No.	Agricultural pesticide	PHI (days)	Sr. No.	Agricultural pesticide	PHI (days)	Sr. No.	Agricultural pesticide	PHI (days)
	Insecticides		_	_	_	_	Fungicides
1	Abamectin *	7	18	Esfenvalerate	14	35	Bordeaux mixture	1
2	Acetamiprid	7	19	Fenpropathrin	1	36	Chlorothalonil	28
3	Azadirachtin *	0	20	Fenvalerate	12	37	Copper oxychloride/hydroxide	1
4	B. Thuringiensis *	0	21	Imidacloprid	7	38	Difenoconazole + cyprodinil	14
5	Beta-cyfluthrin	7	22	Indoxacarb	7	39	Fosetyl Al	15
6	Beta-cyhalothrin	7	23	Malathion	7	40	Mancozeb	60
7	Bifenthrin	1	24	Methidathion	60	41	Potassium bicarbonate	0
8	Buprofezin *	3	25	Methomyl	1	42	Sulfur	1
9	Carbaryl	14	26	Methoxyfenozide *	1	43	Tebuconazole	14
11	Chlorpyrifos	35	28	Neem oil *	0	44	Thiophanate-methyl	7
10	Cyfluthrin	7	27	Permethrin	7	45	Bordeaux mixture	1
12	Cyhalothrin	7	29	Pyrethrin + PBO	When dry		weedicides
13	Cypermethrin	5	30	Pyriproxyfen *	45	46	2,4-D	30
14	Deltamethrin	2	31	Rosemerry oil + peppermint oil *	0	47	Fenoxyprop-p-ethyl	65
15	Dicofol	7	32	Sabadila *	When dry	48	Isoproturon	60
16	Diflubenzuron	21	33	Spinosad *	1	49	MCPA	50
17	Dimethoate	45	34	Thiamethoxam	8	50	Metalaxyl-M and S-isomer	25

* softer or biorational insecticides with low- or reduced-toxicity profile and exhibiting more target-specificity.

In addition, the residues of agricultural toxins can weaken the immune system, cause decreased intelligence, lead to low birth weight, contribute to premature baldness in children, and even result in infertility in women and young children (Want, 2022; Chowdhury et al., 2023). Indeed, the nervous and circulatory systems are quite similar in humans, mice, and insects. That’s why agricultural pesticides used against harmful insects, worms, diseases, and rodents can certainly have negative effects on human health (Hashimi et al., 2020; Rani et al., 2021). According to a recent scientific report, every human body contains some level of chemical residue, and this proportion is higher among people in Africa and Asia as compared to those in America, Europe, and Australia (Olisah et al., 2020; Rajmohan et al., 2020; Rotimi et al., 2021; Schmidt et al., 2021). According to estimates, more than three hundred thousand people worldwide are affected by agricultural pesticides each year. Over twenty thousand of them lose their lives (Maggi et al., 2023; Verzeñassi et al., 2023).

Agricultural pesticides not only impact insects, the environment, wildlife, lakes, and groundwater, but also have adverse effects on human health, including the eyes, skin, lungs, liver, and can even be carcinogenic (Ahmad et al., 2024; Gulzar et al., 2024; Yarkwan et al., 2024). The most significant harmful effects of agricultural pesticides are related to cancer or damage to the nervous system (Lee and Choi, 2020) According to the recent scientific research, countries with high usage of agricultural pesticides have a higher incidence of various types of cancer, with one in every four cases being attributed to pesticide residues (Ali et al., 2021; Ashraf et al., 2023). Additionally, in areas where the use of agricultural pesticides is completely banned, a noticeable reduction in heart diseases has been observed (Donham and Thelin, 2006; Najam and Alam, 2023).

Some agricultural pesticides, especially chlorine-based chemicals such as aldrin, dieldrin, toxaphene, and mirex, are very persistent and can last in the environment for many years (Said and El-Zokm, 2024; Tonelli et al., 2024). These pesticides break down in the human and animal body and accumulate in fat, a process called bioaccumulation (Kamalesh et al., 2023; Arisekar et al., 2024). When the concentration of this poison exceeds a certain limit, it starts to show its effects. This is why the average human lifespan in Europe and America is 80 to 84 years, while in Pakistan, it is only around 60 years. One of the main reasons for this is the indiscriminate and unsafe use of agricultural pesticides (Khalil et al., 2023; Abbas et al., 2024).

Exposure to agricultural pesticides and their symptoms

It is crucial for the farmers to have thorough information about the potential harmful effects of agricultural chemicals on themselves, on their livestock, and to the surrounding environment. They should be aware of which agricultural pesticides can be damaging and toxic, and how to protect themselves and to mitigate the health risks associated with them. The harmful health effects of agricultural pesticides, when used excessively, can be transferred from our fields to the environment, homes, and even our bodies. These toxins can enter our bodies through the nose, ears, eyes, mouth, and skin during pesticide spraying or the preparation of pesticide solutions (AbuQamar et al., 2024; Kaur et al., 2024).

The immediate symptoms of harmful effects of agricultural pesticidal exposure include dizziness, muscle weakness, headache, excessive sweating, nausea, vomiting, fainting, trembling of hands and feet, restlessness, loss of appetite, decreased heart rate, burning sensation and irritation in the eyes, and difficulty in breathing (Okrikata and Nwosu, 2023; Mojisola et al., 2024). Therefore, the farmers need to exercise caution when using agricultural pesticides, and if by mistake, the poison enters our bodies, we should immediately consult a doctor. In case of pesticide exposure, the initial medical aid is to take the affected person or patient to fresh air, administer an injection of atropine sulfate and give them a mixture of egg in fresh milk to drink. Additionally, wash the affected skin with plenty of water and soap (Donham and Thelin, 2006; Alozi and Rawas-Qalaji, 2020).

Recommendations and instructions for safe use of agricultural pesticides in fruits and vegetable production

First of all, it is worth mentioning that farmers should opt for synthetic pesticides, particularly insecticides, as the last option for pest control. Firstly, they should try to go for other non-chemical pest control options such as mechanical, cultural, physical, legislative, and biological pest control strategies. Again, in the case of synthetic pesticides, they should opt for comparatively safer, softer, biorational, and more target-specific and low or reduced toxicity pesticides, such as botanical pesticides, biological-origin and differential-chemistry synthetic insecticides, insect growth regulators, etc. (Rosell et al., 2008; Majeed et al., 2021; Batool et al., 2022; Mahawer et al., 2024).

To avoid the side effects, the following is the list of general instructions and recommendations that should be followed by the fruit and vegetable growers while applying pesticides in their crops.

Always read carefully the label instructions of any pesticidal product before its use.
Use approved and recommended agricultural pesticides against any pest.
Keep track of the expiry of the pesticides.
Use the pesticides in the correct manner and the appropriate dosage.
Do not exceed or decrease the recommended dose of the pesticides.
Store the pesticides in a safe, cool, and dark place.
Keep the pesticides out of the reach of children and minors.
Do not store pesticides in water or other drink bottles or any food containers
Always keep pesticides in their original bottle.
Make a hole on the lower side of pesticide bottles to waste it for any other use.
Do not throw pesticide-contaminated things in open areas or near animal shelters.
During pesticide application, properly cover your eyes, face, ears, arms, and body.
Follow minimum personal protection equipment (PPE) such as rubber shoes, mask, gloves, and waterproof overall during application as shown in Figure 4.
Keep agricultural pesticides and spray machinery away from children.
Before spraying, consider the economic threshold levels of target pests.
After spraying, make sure to thoroughly wash your body and clothes with soap.
Before using fruits and vegetables, wash them thoroughly with clean water or under a tap. Try to use peeled fruits and vegetables as residues of agricultural pesticides are often absorbed in the peels.
When using pesticides on fruits and vegetables, choose ones with minimal environmental and human health impacts. These pesticides are also called softer or reduced-risk pesticides.
Last but not least is that always opt for pesticides with minimum or shorter pre-harvest interval (PHI), which is the minimum time (in days) between the last application of a pesticide and when the crop can be harvested. PHI values (in days) of a few commonly used synthetic pesticides are given in Table 2.

Acknowledgements

Authors are grateful to Dr. Muhammad Asam Riaz (Department of Entomology, University of Sargodha, Sargodha, Pakistan) for the technical review of the first draft.

Novelty Statement

This review paper highlights the importance of knowing about the hazards that pesticidal residues can cause to human health and the environment, and summarizes the precautionary strategies for avoiding and minimizing the exposure and ecological consequences of synthetic pesticides.

Author’s Contribution

Muhammad Zeeshan Majeed: Conceived the idea and technically revised the draft.

Muhammad Usman: Prepared the figures and tables.

Murtajiz Abbas: Wrote the first draft.

Muhammad Luqman: Technically revised the draft.

Abu Bakar Muhammad Raza: Supervised the research work.

Conflict of interest

The authors have declared no conflict of interest.

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