PJWSR_31_2_104-116

Introduction

Vegetation refers to a comprehensive list of plant species found in a given geographic area (Amjad et al., 2017). Understanding vegetation structure provides insight into biodiversity and helps assess current climate conditions (Thakur et al., 2012). It provides an important resource for systematic research on plant life (Khan et al., 2017). Floristic inventory provides a taxonomic perspective on flora, further classifying and analyzing plant species in a given region (Panda et al., 2014). Floristic diversity encompasses both morphological characteristics and ecological interactions across various environments (Catarino et al., 2002). The life form of a plant refers to the shape of its vegetative body which is affected by climate, while the biological spectrum represents the distribution of different classes of life forms (Sharma et al., 2018). Such traits reflect adaptive strategies of plant species to prevailing ecological conditions (Khalid et al., 2017). Life forms and leaf size spectra are important indicators of micro and macro-climatic conditions and of anthropogenic effects in a region (Cain et al., 1959). These studies help to understand local vegetation cover and major climate changes (Oosting, 1948), and provide information about plant physiology and interactions (Rashid et al., 2011). Plant physiognomy traits, such as life form and leaf size spectrum, are often used in vegetation studies (Khalid, 2017), which indicate climate and adaptability to existing climatic conditions. However, biotic factors such as overgrazing and deforestation can alter the distribution of life forms. Although research has been done on the floral spectrum and biology in several regions, these are lacking in the District Swabi, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan. This study aims to address the gap by examining the region’s biological features and flora inventory, as well as by offering the fundamental information required for studies in forestry, taxonomy, ecology, ethnobotany, and conservation.

Materials and Methods

Study area

Swabi District, Khyber, Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan is located between the Indus and Kabul rivers (Maqsood et al., 2015). It is the fourth largest populated district. Swabi is located between 34.70 °N and 72.280 °E, with a total area of 1,543 km2. Approximately 78% of the district is mountainous, while the remaining 22% comprise flat, and terrain. The district is mainly mountainous (78.0%), while the remaining part (21.0%) is flat, dry land. May and June show significant temperature increases, while July, August and September show almost constant temperatures. June was the month with the highest recorded temperature of 41.5°C. January had the lowest temperature ever recorded, namely 2°C. The woody vegetation includes Quercus sp. Acacia nilotica, Pinus roxburgii, Tamarix aphylla and Acacia modesta. Dominant shrubs include Dodonaea viscosa, Justicia adhatoda. While Saccharum spontaneum, etc. are common (Figure 1).

Materials and Methods

Field visit and data collection

Regular visits were conducted from 2022-2024 to collect and identify the plant specimens and other ecological field data.

Specimen preservation

Collected plants were dried, preserved, and placed on herbarium sheets.

Plant identification

Plant identification was done using the Flora of Pakistan by (Ali et al., 1989-1993).

Floral inventory

A comprehensive floral inventory, alphabetized by plant families, has been compiled.

Classification by leaf size and habitat type

Plant species were classified according to leaf size and habitat type following (Hussain, 1989).

Biological spectrum analysis

Biological spectrum was analyzed using the methodology used by (Raunkiaer, 1934).

Results

Floristic diversity

Floral diversity refers to all plants, both wild and cultivated, present in any geographic area. The floristic composition of each region is influenced by several factors such as prevailing climatic conditions, soil properties, anthropogenic pressures and natural stresses. The total number of plant species present in a given geographical area is called its floral composition. The flora of the Swabi region includes 53 families, 102 genera and 140 species. The largest families were Poaceae (15 spp.), Rosaceae (11 spp.), Dryopteridaceae and Solanaceae (7 spp.), each Polygonaceae (6 spp.), Pteridaceae, Fabaceae, Moraceae and Cucurbitaceae (5 spp.), Euphorbiaceae, Chenopodiaceae, Aspleniaceae, Brassicaceae. and Salicaceae (4 spp.), Fagaceae, Lamiaceae, Cupressaceae and Adiantaceae (3 spp.), Simaroubaceae, Equisetaceae, Amaranthaceae, Urticaceae, Geraniaceae, Verbenaceae and Betulaceae (2 spp.). The remaining families had only one species (Figure 2; Table 1).

Legends: Key to abbreviations: Tables 1 and 2

Habit: T-Tree; S-Shrub; H-Herb; C-Climber. Life form: G-Geophytes; Th-Therophytes; H-Hemicrptophytes; Ch-Chamaephytes; P-phanerophytes; Mic-Microphanerophytes; Mesp-Mesophanerophytes; Megp-Megaphanerophytes. Leaf form: Ap- Aphyllous; L-Leptophyll; N-Nanophyll; Mic-Microphyll; Mes-Mesophyll; Meg-Megaphyll, Mac-Macrophyll. Habitat: A-agricultural fields; D-dry slopes; W-moist places; CU-cultivated; GY-Graveyards; F-forest; M-moist; S-shady places; R-rock crevices; Wp-waste places. Specimen (Herbarium) voucher number: HG-Huma Gul; ISL-Abbreviation of Herbarium of Quaid-i-Azam University Islamabad, Pakistan; QAU-Quaid-i-Azam University, Islamabad, Pakistan.

Herbaceous vegetation was dominant (95 species, 68%), followed by shrubs (13 species, 9%), trees (23 species, 16%) and climbing plants (9 species, 7%) (Figure 3, Table 2). Herbaceous vegetation dominates the study area, followed by trees, shrubs and climbing plants. This predominance of herbaceous vegetation is attributed to the overuse of trees and shrubs by the valley’s inhabitants, which has led to the decline of their population.

Table 1: Ecological characteristics and floristic diversity of the plants of the study area district Swabi.

S. No	Plant Species	Family	Habit	Life form	Leaf form	Habitat	Life cycle	Voucher numbers
1	Adiantum capillus-veneris L. HG-1, ISL, QAU, Pakistan	Adiantaceae	Herb	Hem	Nan	Mp	Perennial	HG-ISL-110
2	Asiantum venustum D. Don HG-2, ISL, QAU, Pakistan	Adiantaceae	Herb	Hem	Nan	Mp	Perennial	HG-ISL-111
3	Polystichum wilsonii Christ. HG-3, ISL, QAU, Pakistan	Dryopteridaceae	Herb	Hem	Nan	Wap	Perennial	HG-ISL-112
4	Cystopteris fragilis (L). Bernh. HG-4, ISL, QAU, Pakistan	Cystopteridaceae	Herb	Geo	Mic	Wap	Perennial	HG-ISL-113
5	Dryopteris odontoloma (Moore.). HG-5, ISL, QAU, Pakistan	Dryopteridaceae	Herb	Hem	Lep	Mp	Perennial	HG-ISL-114
6	Asplenium septentrionale (L.) HG-6, ISL, QAU, Pakistan	Aspleniaceae	Herb	Hem	Lep	Wap	Perennial	HG-ISL-115
7	Polystichum discretum (D. Don) J. Sm HG-7, ISL, QAU, Pakistan	Dryopteridaceae	Herb	Hem	Nan	Mp	Perennial	HG-ISL-116
8	Hypodematium crenatum (Forssk.) Kuhn. HG-8, ISL, QAU, Pakistan	Dryopteridaceae	Herb	Hem	Lep	Mp	Perennial	HG-ISL-117
9	Asplenium adiantum-nigrum L. HG-9, ISL, QAU, Pakistan	Aspleniaceae	Herb	Hem	Nan	Mp	Perennial	HG-ISL-118
10	Dryopteris sieboldii L. HG-10, ISL, QAU, Pakistan	Dryopteridaceae	Herb	Hem	Lep	Wap	Perennial	HG-ISL-119
11	Dryopteris serrato-dentata (Bedd.) Hayata. HG-11, ISL, QAU, Pakistan	Dryopteridaceae	Herb	Hem	Lep	Mp	Perennial	HG-ISL-120
12	Adiantum incisum L. HG-12, ISL, QAU, Pakistan	Adiantaceae	Herb	Hem	Lep	Mp	Perennial	HG-ISL-121
13	Asplenium trichomanes L. HG-13, ISL, QAU, Pakistan	Aspleniaceae	Herb	Hem	Lep	Mp	Perennial	HG-ISL-122
14	Polystichum lonchitis (L.) Roth. HG-14, ISL, QAU, Pakistan	Dryopteridaceae	Herb	Hem	Nan	Mp	Perennial	HG-ISL-123
15	Ceterach dalhousiae (Hk.) C. Chr HG-15, ISL, QAU, Pakistan	Aspleniaceae	Herb	Hem	Nan	Mp	Perennial	HG-ISL-124
16	Equisetum arvense L. HG-16, ISL, QAU, Pakistan	Equisetaceae	Herb	Hem	Lep	Wap	Perennial	HG-ISL-125
17	Equisetum ramossimum Desf. HG-17, ISL, QAU, Pakistan	Equisetaceae	Herb	Geo	Aph	Mp	Perennial	HG-ISL-126
18	Pteridium aquilinum (L.) Kuhn. HG-18, ISL, QAU, Pakistan	Pteridaceae	Herb	Geo	Mic	Wap	Perennial	HG-ISL-127
19	Pteris cretica L. HG-19, ISL, QAU, Pakistan	Pteridaceae	Herb	Hem	Mic	Mp	Perennial	HG-ISL-128
20	Pteris vitata L. HG-20, ISL, QAU, Pakistan	Pteridaceae	Herb	Hem	Mic	Mp	Perennial	HG-ISL-129
21	Onychium contiguum Wall ex. Hope HG-21, ISL, QAU, Pakistan	Pteridaceae	Herb	Geo	Mic	Wap	Perennial	HG-ISL-130
22	Cheilanthes pteridioides (Reichard.) C. Chr. HG-22, ISL, QAU, Pakistan	Pteridaceae	Herb	Hem	Nan	Wap	Perennial	HG-ISL-131
23	Juniperus communis L. HG-23, ISL, QAU, Pakistan	Cupressaceae	Shrub	Phan	Lep	F	Perennial	HG-ISL-132
24	Picea simithiana (Wall.) Bioss. HG-24, ISL, QAU, Pakistan	Pinnaceae	Tree	Phan	Nan	F	Perennial	HG-ISL-133
25	Allium cepa L. HG-25, ISL, QAU, Pakistan	Alliaceae	Herb	Geo	Mes	CU	Annual	HG-ISL-134
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S. No	Plant Species	Family	Habit	Life form	Leaf form	Habitat	Life cycle	Voucher numbers
26	Cyperus rotundus L. HG-26, ISL, QAU, Pakistan	Cyperaceae	Herb	Ther	Nan	Mp	Perennial	HG-ISL-135
27	Oryza sativa L. HG-27, ISL, QAU, Pakistan	Poaceae	Herb	Ther	Mic	CU	Perennial	HG-ISL-136
28	Hordium vulgare L. HG-28, ISL, QAU, Pakistan	Poaceae	Herb	Hem	Mic	Af	Annual	HG-ISL-137
29	Dicanthium annulatum (Forssk.) Stapf. HG-29, ISL, QAU, Pakistan	Poaceae	Herb	Hem	Nan	Af	Perennial	HG-ISL-138
30	Cynodon dactylon L. HG-30, ISL, QAU, Pakistan	Poaceae	Herb	Hem	Lep	Drp	Perennial	HG-ISL-139
31	Apluda mutica L. HG-31, ISL, QAU, Pakistan	Poaceae	Herb	Hem	Nan	Af	Annual	HG-ISL-140
32	Avena fatula L. HG-32, ISL, QAU, Pakistan	Poaceae	Herb	Ther	Mic	Af	Annual	HG-ISL-141
33	Zea maize L. HG-33, ISL, QAU, Pakistan	Poaceae	Herb	Ther	Mes	Drp	Annual	HG-ISL-142
34	Amanathus spinosus L. HG-34, ISL, QAU, Pakistan	Amaranthaceae	Herb	Ther	Mic	Wap	Annual	HG-ISL-143
35	Amaranthus viridis L. HG-35, ISL, QAU, Pakistan	Amaranthaceae	Herb	Ther	Mic	Drp	Annual	HG-ISL-144
36	Nerium oleander L. HG-36, ISL, QAU, Pakistan	Apocynaceae	Shrub	Phan	Mes	Mp	Perennial	HG-ISL-145
37	Hedra neplensiis K. Koch. HG-37, ISL, QAU, Pakistan	Araliaceae	Climber	Phan	Mes	F	Perennial	HG-ISL-146
38	Calotropis procera (Willd.) R. Brown HG-38, ISL, QAU, Pakistan	Asclepediaceae	Shrub	Cham	Mes	Drp	Perennial	HG-ISL-147
39	Berberis Lycium L. HG-39, ISL, QAU, Pakistan	Berberidaceae	Shrub	Phan	Nan	Rp	Annual	HG-ISL-148
40	Betula utilis D. Don HG-40, ISL, QAU, Pakistan	Betulaceae	Tree	Phan	Mes	F	Perennial	HG-ISL-149
41	Alnus nitida (spach). Endl. HG-41, ISL, QAU, Pakistan	Betulaceae	Tree	Phan	Mes	Wap	Annual	HG-ISL-150
42	Raphanus sativus L. HG-42, ISL, QAU, Pakistan	Brassicaceae	Herb	Ther	Mac	CU	Annual	HG-ISL-151
43	Verbasaccum thapsus L. HG-43, ISL, QAU, Pakistan	Brassicaceae	Herb	Ther	Meg	Drp	Perennial	HG-ISL-152
44	Thlaspi arvense L. HG-44, ISL, QAU, Pakistan	Brassicaceae	Herb	Ther	Nan	Wap	Annual	HG-ISL-153
45	Thlaspi griffthianum Boiss HG-45, ISL, QAU, Pakistan	Brassicaceae	Herb	Ther	Nan	Wap	Annual	HG-ISL-154
46	Cannabis sativa L. HG-46, ISL, QAU, Pakistan	Cannabaceae	Herb	Ther	Mic	Wap	Annual	HG-ISL-155
47	Chenopodium album L. HG-47, ISL, QAU, Pakistan	Chenopodiaceae	Herb	Ther	Nan	Drp	Annual	HG-ISL-156
48	Chenopodium botrys L. HG-48, ISL, QAU, Pakistan	Chenopodiaceae	Herb	Ther	Mic	Wap	Annual	HG-ISL-157
49	Chenopodium foliosum Aschers. HG-49, ISL, QAU, Pakistan	Chenopodiaceae	Herb	Ther	Nan	Wap	Annual	HG-ISL-158
50	Chenopodium ambrosioides L. HG-50, ISL, QAU, Pakistan	Chenopodiaceae	Herb	Ther	Mes	Wap	Annual	HG-ISL-159
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S. No	Plant Species	Family	Habit	Life form	Leaf form	Habitat	Life cycle	Voucher numbers
51	Sedum hispanicum L. HG-51, ISL, QAU, Pakistan	Crassulaceae	Climber	Hem	Nan	Mp	Perennial	HG-ISL-160
52	Cucumis melo L. HG-52, ISL, QAU, Pakistan	Cucurbitaceae	Climber	Ther	Mes	Drp	Annual	HG-ISL-161
53	Luffa cylindrica L. HG-53, ISL, QAU, Pakistan	Cucurbitaceae	Climber	Ther	Mic	CU	Annual	HG-ISL-162
54	Cucumis sativus L. HG-54, ISL, QAU, Pakistan	Cucurbitaceae	Climber	Ther	Mac	CU	Annual	HG-ISL-163
55	Cucurbita maxima Duch. Ex Lam. HG-55, ISL, QAU, Pakistan	Cucurbitaceae	Climber	Ther	Meg	CU	Annual	HG-ISL-164
56	Cucurbita Pepo L. HG-56, ISL, QAU, Pakistan	Cucurbitaceae	Climber	Ther	Meg	CU	Annual	HG-ISL-165
57	Euphorbia helioscopia L. HG-57, ISL, QAU, Pakistan	Euphorbiaceae	Herb	Ther	Nan	Drp	Annual	HG-ISL-166
58	Euphorbia timctoria L. HG-58, ISL, QAU, Pakistan	Euphobiaceae	Herb	Ther	Mic	Drp	Annual	HG-ISL-167
59	Euphorbia Peplus L. HG-59, ISL, QAU, Pakistan	Euphobiaceae	Herb	Ther	Lep	Af	Annual	HG-ISL-168
60	Riccinus communis L. HG-60, ISL, QAU, Pakistan	Euphobiaceae	Shrub	Phan	Mic	Drp	Perennial	HG-ISL-169
61	Quercus Baloot Griffth. HG-61, ISL, QAU, Pakistan	Fagaceae	Tree	Phan	Mic	Drp	Perennial	HG-ISL-170
62	Fummaria indica L. HG-62, ISL, QAU, Pakistan	Fummariaceae	Herb	Ther	Lep	Drp	Annual	HG-ISL-171
63	Erodium cicutarium L. HG-63, ISL, QAU, Pakistan	Geraniaceae	Herb	Ther	Mes	Wap	Annual	HG-ISL-172
64	Quercus incana Roxb. HG-64, ISL, QAU, Pakistan	Fagaceae	Tree	Phan	Mic	Drp	Perennial	HG-ISL-173
65	Geranium colinum Sweet. HG-65, ISL, QAU, Pakistan	Geraniaceae	Herb	Hem	Mic	F	Perennial	HG-ISL-174
66	Swertia cordata (G. Don) Clarke HG-66, ISL, QAU, Pakistan	Gentianaceae	Herb	Ther	Lep	Drp	Annual	HG-ISL-175
67	Mentha longifolia (L.) Huds. HG-67, ISL, QAU, Pakistan	Lamiaceae	Herb	Hem	Nan	Mp	Perennial	HG-ISL-176
68	Quercus dilatata Royle. HG-68, ISL, QAU, Pakistan	Fagaceae	Tree	Phan	Mic	Drp	Perennial	HG-ISL-177
69	Mirabilis jalapa L HG-69, ISL, QAU, Pakistan	Nyctaginaceae	Herb	Ther	Mes	Drp	Perennial	HG-ISL-178
70	Ajuga bracteosa Wall. ex Benth. HG-70, ISL, QAU, Pakistan	Lamiaceae	Herb	Hem	Mic	Drp	Perennial	HG-ISL-179
71	Ocimum basilicum L. HG-71, ISL, QAU, Pakistan	Lamiaceae	Herb	Cham	Nan	Drp	Perennial	HG-ISL-180
72	Morus nigra L. HG-72, ISL, QAU, Pakistan	Moraceae	Herb	Phan	Mes	Drp	Perennial	HG-ISL-181
73	Juglans regia L. HG-73, ISL, QAU, Pakistan	Juglandaceae	Tree	Phan	Mic	Drp	Perennial	HG-ISL-182
74	Morus macroura Miq. HG-74, ISL, QAU, Pakistan	Moraceae	Herb	Phan	Mes	Drp	Perennial	HG-ISL-183
75	Myrtus communis L. HG-75, ISL, QAU, Pakistan	Myrtaceae	Shrub	Phan	Mic	Mp	Perennial	HG-ISL-184
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S. No	Plant Species	Family	Habit	Life form	Leaf form	Habitat	Life cycle	Voucher numbers
76	Ficus johanis Boiss. HG-76, ISL, QAU, Pakistan	Moraceae	Herb	Phan	Mes	Drp	Perennial	HG-ISL-185
77	Morus alba L. HG-77, ISL, QAU, Pakistan	Moraceae	Herb	Phan	Mes	Drp	Perennial	HG-ISL-186
78	Ficus palmata Forssk. HG-78, ISL, QAU, Pakistan	Moraceae	Herb	Phan	Mes	Drp	Perennial	HG-ISL-187
79	Jasminum officinale L. HG-79, ISL, QAU, Pakistan	Oleaceae	Shrub	Phan	Nan	Drp	Annual	HG-ISL-188
80	Oxalis corniculata L. HG-80, ISL, QAU, Pakistan	Oxalidaceae	Herb	Ther	Nan	Sp	Annual	HG-ISL-189
81	Medicago minima (L.) Grufb. HG-81, ISL, QAU, Pakistan	Fabaceae	Herb	Ther	Nan	Af	Annual	HG-ISL-190
82	Melilotus officinalis (Linn.) Desr. HG-82, ISL, QAU, Pakistan	Fabaceae	Herb	Ther	Nan	Mp	Annual	HG-ISL-191
83	Vicia sativa L. HG-83, ISL, QAU, Pakistan	Fabaceae	Climber	Ther	Nan	Af	Annual	HG-ISL-192
84	Trifolium repens L. HG-84, ISL, QAU, Pakistan	Fabaceae	Herb	Ther	Nan	F	Perennial	HG-ISL-193
85	Trigonella gracilis Benth. HG-85, ISL, QAU, Pakistan	Fabaceae	Herb	Ther	Nan	Mp	Perennial	HG-ISL-194
86	Platanus orientalis L. HG-86, ISL, QAU, Pakistan	Platanaceae	Tree	Phan	Mes	F	Perennial	HG-ISL-195
87	Rumex dentatus L. HG-87, ISL, QAU, Pakistan	Polygonaceae	Herb	Hem	Mes	Mp	Annual	HG-ISL-196
88	Rumex hastatus D. Don HG-88, ISL, QAU, Pakistan	Polygonaceae	Herb	Cham	Nan	Drp	Perennial	HG-ISL-197
89	Bistorta amplexicaulis (D. Don) HG-89, ISL, QAU, Pakistan	Polygonaceae	Herb	Hem	Mes	F	Perennial	HG-ISL-198
90	Polygonum barbatum L. HG-90, ISL, QAU, Pakistan	Polygonaceae	Herb	Ther	Nan	Mp	Perennial	HG-ISL-199
91	Punica grantaum L. HG-91, ISL, QAU, Pakistan	Polygonaceae	Tree	Phan	Mic	Drp	Perennial	HG-ISL-200
92	Ranunculus muricatus L. HG-92, ISL, QAU, Pakistan	Polygonaceae	Herb	Geo	Mic	Wap	Annual	HG-ISL-201
93	Ziziphus mauritiana Lam. HG-93, ISL, QAU, Pakistan	Rosaceae	Tree	Phan	Nan	Drp	Perennial	HG-ISL-202
94	Potentilla nepalensis Hook. HG-94, ISL, QAU, Pakistan	Rosaceae	Herb	Hem	Mic	F	Perennial	HG-ISL-203
95	Rosa alba L. HG-95, ISL, QAU, Pakistan	Rosaceae	Shrub	Phan	Nan	CU	Perennial	HG-ISL-204
96	Rubus ulmifolius Schott HG-96, ISL, QAU, Pakistan	Rosaceae	Shrub	Phan	Mic	Mp	Perennial	HG-ISL-205
97	Rubus sanctus Schreber HG-97, ISL, QAU, Pakistan	Rosaceae	Shrub	Phan	Mic	Mp	Perennial	HG-ISL-206
98	Prunus domestica L. HG-98, ISL, QAU, Pakistan	Rosaceae	Tree	Phan	Mes	CU	Perennial	HG-ISL-207
99	Prunus persica L. Batsch. HG-99, ISL, QAU, Pakistan	Rosaceae	Tree	Phan	Mes	CU	Perennial	HG-ISL-208
100	Prunus cornuta (Wall. Ex. Royle.) HG-100, ISL, QAU, Pakistan	Rosaceae	Tree	Phan	Mes	F	Perennial	HG-ISL-209
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S. No	Plant Species	Family	Habit	Life form	Leaf form	Habitat	Life cycle	Voucher numbers
101	Salix babylonica L. HG-101, ISL, QAU, Pakistan	Salicaceae	Tree	Phan	Mic	Wap	Perennial	HG-ISL-210
102	Prunus armeniaca L. HG-102, ISL, QAU, Pakistan	Rosaceae	Tree	Phan	Mes	CU	Perennial	HG-ISL-211
103	Pyrus pashia Ham. Ex. D. Don. HG-103, ISL, QAU, Pakistan	Rosaceae	Tree	Phan	Mic	CU	Annual	HG-ISL-212
104	Salix tetrasperma Roxb. HG-104, ISL, QAU, Pakistan	Salicaceae	Tree	Phan	Mes	Wap	Perennial	HG-ISL-213
105	Populus alba Wall. HG-105, ISL, QAU, Pakistan	Salicaceae	Tree	Phan	Mes	CU	Perennial	HG-ISL-214
106	Populus nigra L. HG-106, ISL, QAU, Pakistan	Salicaceae	Tree	Phan	Mac	CU	Perennial	HG-ISL-215
107	Pyrus communis L. HG-107, ISL, QAU, Pakistan	Rosaceae	Tree	Phan	Mic	CU	Perennial	HG-ISL-216
108	Dodonaea viscosa (L.) Jacq. HG-108, ISL, QAU, Pakistan	Sapindaceae	Shrub	Phan	Mic	Drp	Perennial	HG-ISL-217
109	Veronica polita Fries. HG-109, ISL, QAU, Pakistan	Scrophulariaceae	Herb	Ther	Nan	Mp	Annual	HG-ISL-218
110	Datura innoxia Mill HG-110, ISL, QAU, Pakistan	Solanaceae	Herb	Ther	Mes	Wap	Annual	HG-ISL-219
111	Datura stramonium L. HG-111, ISL, QAU, Pakistan	Solanaceae	Herb	Ther	Mes	Wap	Annual	HG-ISL-220
112	Lycopersicon esculentum Miller HG-112, ISL, QAU, Pakistan	Solanaceae	Herb	Ther	Mes	CU	Annual	HG-ISL-221
113	Solanum nigrum L. HG-113, ISL, QAU, Pakistan	Solanaceae	Herb	Ther	Mic	Drp	Annual	HG-ISL-222
114	Solanum pseudo-capsicum L. HG-114, ISL, QAU, Pakistan	Solanaceae	Herb	Ther	Mic	G	Perennial	HG-ISL-223
115	Solanum tuberosum L. HG-115, ISL, QAU, Pakistan	Solanaceae	Herb	Geo	Mes	CU	Perennial	HG-ISL-224
116	Urtica dioica L. HG-116, ISL, QAU, Pakistan	Urticaceae	Herb	Ther	Mic	Mp	Perennial	HG-ISL-225
117	Debregessia salcifolia (D. Don) Rendle. HG-117, ISL, QAU, Pakistan	Urticaceae	Shrub	Phan	Mic	Mp	Perennial	HG-ISL-226
118	Vitis vinifera L. HG-118, ISL, QAU, Pakistan	Vitaceae	Climber	Phan	Mes	CU	Perennial	HG-ISL-227
119	Tribulus terrestris L. HG-119, ISL, QAU, Pakistan	Zygophyllaceae	Herb	Hem	Lep	Wap	Annual	HG-ISL-228
120	Triticum aestivum (L.) HG-120, ISL, QAU, Pakistan	Poaceae	Herb	Ther	Mic	CU	Annual	HG-ISL-229
121	Avena sativa HG-121, ISL, QAU, Pakistan	Poaceae	Herb	Ther	Nan	W	Annual	HG-ISL-230
122	Dichanthium annulatum L. HG-122, ISL, QAU, Pakistan	Poaceae	Herb	Hem	Nan	W	Perennial	HG-ISL-231
123	Physalis minima L. HG-123, ISL, QAU, Pakistan	Solanaceae	Herb	Cham	Mic	W	Annual	HG-ISL-232
124	Cupressus sempervirens L. HG-124, ISL, QAU, Pakistan	Cupressaceae	Tree	Meg	Mes	CU	Perennial	HG-ISL-333
125	Verbena officinalis L. HG-125, ISL, QAU, Pakistan	Verbenaceae	Herb	Ther	Nan	W	Perennial	HG-ISL-334
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S. No	Plant Species	Family	Habit	Life form	Leaf form	Habitat	Life cycle	Voucher numbers
126	Lantana camara L. HG-126, ISL, QAU, Pakistan	Verbenaceae	Shrub	Ther	Mic	W	Perennial	HG-ISL-335
127	Datura alba L. HG-127, ISL, QAU, Pakistan	Simaroubaceae	Herb	Cham	Mes	W	Annual	HG-ISL-336
128	Verbascum thapsus L. HG-128, ISL, QAU, Pakistan	Simaroubaceae	Herb	Nan	Mic	W	Perennial	HG-ISL-337
129	Arundo donax L. HG-129, ISL, QAU, Pakistan	Poaceae	Herb	Phan	Mac	W	Perennial	HG-ISL-338
130	Cymbopogan citratus Spreng. HG-130, ISL, QAU, Pakistan	Poaceae	Herb	Hem	Nan	CU	Perennial	HG-ISL-339
131	Desmostachya bipinnata (L.) Stapf. HG-131, ISL, QAU, Pakistan	Poaceae	Herb	Hem	Mac	W	Perennial	HG-ISL-340
132	Phalaris minor L. HG-132, ISL, QAU, Pakistan	Poaceae	Herb	Ther	Mic	W	Annual	HG-ISL-341
133	Sorghum halepense (L.) Pers. HG-133, ISL, QAU, Pakistan	Poaceae	Herb	Geo	Mic	W	Perennial	HG-ISL-342
134	Colocasia esculentus L. HG-134, ISL, QAU, Pakistan	Araceae	Herb	Geo	Meg	CU	Perennial	HG-ISL-343
135	Phoenix dactylifera L. HG-2, ISL, QAU, Pakistan	Arecaceae	Tree	Meg	Mic	CU	Perennial	HG-ISL-344
136	Asparagus officianalis L. HG-136, ISL, QAU, Pakistan	Asparagaceae	Herb	Nan	Lep	CU	Perennial	HG-ISL-345
137	Narcissus poeticus L HG-137, ISL, QAU, Pakistan	Amaryllidaceae	Herb	Meg	Mes	CU	Perennial	HG-ISL-346
138	Thuja orientalis L. HG-138, ISL, QAU, Pakistan	Cupressaceae	Tree	Meg	Nan	CU	Perennial	HG-ISL-347
139	Cynoglossum glochidiatum Wall. Ex HG-139, ISL, QAU, Pakistan	Boraginaceae	Herb	Ther	Mic	Drp	Perennial	HG-ISL-348
140	Impatiens bicolor Royle. HG-140, ISL, QAU, Pakistan	Balsaminaceae	Herb	Ther	Mes	Mp	Annual	HG-ISL-349

Legends: Key to abbreviations: Tables 1, 2.

Biological spectrum of vegetation

In the present study, a Raunkiaerean classification is applied, study reveals that therophytes are the most abundant life form with (48 spp., 30%), followed by phanerophytes (39 spp., 25%), Hemicryptophytes (33 spp., 21%), Nanophanerophytes (2 spp., 1%), Megaphanerophytes (4 spp., 3%), Geophytes (9 spp., 6%), Mesophanerophytes (18 spp., 11%), and Chamaephytes (5 spp., 3%), were the second most common life forms (Figure 4).

Plant parts used and mode of preparation

Examination of leaf size spectra (Figure 5), Microphyll (43 spp., 31%), followed by Nanophyll (38 spp., 27%), Mesophylls (34 spp., 24%), Leptophyll with (15 spp., 11%), Macrophyll with (5 spp., 3%), Megaphyll with (4 spp., 3%) and Aphyllous has only (1 species) (Figure 5). Plant species are also classified based on their habitat. The results showed that the largest number of species were found in Dry places (31 species., 22%), followed by Moist places (29 species., 21%), Cultivated areas (26 species., 18%), Wasteland areas (23 species., 16%), Wet places (11 spp., 8%), forests places (10 spp., 7%), Agricultural areas (7 spp., 5%). While the rest of all Rocky, Shady and Graveyards places have only (1 spp., 1%) (Figure 6).

Table 2: Summary of ecological characteristics of plants of the study area.

S. No	Characteristics	Number	Percentage %
1	Vegetation
	Families	53	--
	Genera	102	--
	Species	140	--
2	Habit
	Herbs	95	68%
	Shrubs	13	9%
	Trees	23	16%
	Climbers	9	7%
3	Life form (Spectrum)
	Therophytes	48	30%
	Phanerophytes	39	25%
	Geophytes	9	6%
	Hemicrptophytes	33	21%
	Chamaephytes	5	3%
	Megaphanerophytes	4	3%
	Nanophanerophytes	2	1%
	Mesophanerophytes	18	11%
4	Leaf form
	Microphyll	43	31%
	Nanophyll	38	27%
	Mesophyll	34	24%
	Leptophyll	15	11%
	Macrophyll	5	3%
	Megaphyll	4	3%
	Aphyllous	1	1%
5	Habitat
	Dry places	31	22%
	Cultivated	26	18%
	Forest	10	7%
	Agricultural fields	7	5%
	Rocky place	1	1%
	Shady places	1	1%
	Waste places	23	16%
	Moist places	29	21%
	Wet places	11	8%
	Graveyards	1	1%
6	Life cycle
	Annual	48	34%
	Perennial	92	66%

Discussion

The flora of the Swabi region includes 53 families, 102 genera and 140 species. The largest families were

Poaceae (15 spp.), Rosaceae (11 spp.), Dryopteridaceae and Solanaceae (7 spp.), each Polygonaceae (6 spp.), Pteridaceae, Fabaceae, Moraceae and Cucurbitaceae (5 spp.), Euphorbiaceae, Chenopodiaceae, Aspleniaceae, Brassicaceae. and Salicaceae (4 species), Fagaceae, Lamiaceae, Cupressaceae and Adiantaceae (3 species), Simaroubaceae, Equisetaceae, Amaranthaceae, Urticaceae, Geraniaceae, Verbenaceae and Betulaceae (2 species). The remaining families had only one species. Research in floriculture provides basic information for further investigation of taxonomic and ecological information and for planning sustainable management and conservation of plant resources (Amjad et al., 2017). Many studies, including those by (Durrani et al., 2005) have shown that some families are dominant. The existence of these families was confirmed in the Flora of Pakistan by (Ali et al., 1989-1993) and it was emphasized that they have a wide distribution. Additionally, (Ullah and Badshah, 2017) reported in their study in Lajbouk that the dominant family was Poaceae, followed by Lamiaceae, Asteraceae and Solanaceae. Ullah et al. (2020), described 250 species in 77 families; Asteraceae and Lamiaceae are the main dominant families. These results are in close agreement with those from Jammu and Kashmir (Sharma et al., 2018), in which Asteraceae was identified as the dominant family, followed by Rosaceae, Lamiaceae and Poaceae.

Herbaceous vegetation was dominant (95 spp., 68%), followed by shrubs (13 spp., 9%), trees (23 spp., 16%) and climbing plants (9 spp., 7%). Herbaceous vegetation dominates the study area, followed by trees, shrubs and climbing plants. Similar patterns were observed at different intervals (Khan et al., 2017) in Ranizai, Swat (Ali et al., 2019) in Nowshera region; Swat, (Naveed et al., 2012) Karak, (Anjum et al., 2020) in Baluchistan, (Ullah and Badshah, 2017) in the Jelar Valley; Akhtar in Miandam, Swat (Khalid, 2017) and (Khan et al., 2017) in Darra Adam Khel. The prevalence of herbaceous vegetation and the excessive consumption of trees and shrubs by the inhabitants of the valley lead to a decrease in the decomposition of trees and shrubs. These findings highlighted the urgent need for numerous improvements and conservation efforts. In the present study, therophytes are the most abundant life form therophytes with (48 spp., 34%), followed by phanerophytes (39 spp., 28%), Hemicryptophytes (33 spp., 24%), Nanophanerophytes (2 spp., 1%), Megaphanerophytes (4 spp., 3%), Geophytes (9 spp., 6%), Mesophanerophytes (18 spp., 11%), and Chamaephytes (5 spp., 4%), were the second most common life forms. The physiognomy of flora and vegetation is influenced by life forms and environmental factors. Raunkiær (1934) proposed a classification of life forms based on the placement of permanent structures in adverse conditions that affect the physiognomy of flora and vegetation. Our results are consistent with those of (Cain and Castro, 1959). Similar findings have been documented in studies conducted in Gadoon and Swabi (Sher et al., 2014). The finding of our results is strongly coincides with that of (Haq et al., 2019), who reported the prevalence of therophytes in the region. Similarly, (Kar et al., 2010) obtained similar spectra of life forms during their survey in the grasslands of Odisha, India. Examination of leaf size spectra, Microphyll (43 spp., 31%), followed by Nanophyll (38 spp., 27%), Mesophylls (34 spp., 24%), Leptophyll with (15 spp., 11%), Macrophyll with (5 spp., 3%), Megaphyll with (4 spp., 3%) and Aphyllous has only (1 spp.). Leaf size plays a crucial role in determining various plant functions, such as photosynthesis and transpiration. Understanding the leaf size spectrum of plant species can provide information about their physiological processes and community dynamics (Oosting, 1948). These results are consistent with those reported by (Malik et al., 2007), who showed that similar leaf size classes predominate in Kashmir and Quetta. The results showed that the largest number of species were found in dry places (31 species., 22%), followed by moist places (29 spp., 21%), cultivated areas (26 spp., 18%), wasteland areas (23 spp., 16%), Wet places (11 spp., 8%), forests places (10 spp., 7%), agricultural areas (7 spp., 5%). While the rest of all rocky, shady and Graveyards places have only (1 spp., 1%). The habitat conditions in the region are predominantly dry as the maximum number of species are found in dry habitats, followed by forests. In the present study, we are also classified the Plant species based on their habitat. Various researchers such as (Samreen et al., 2016) have also conducted similar studies. They classified plant species based on their habitat type. Therefore, our findings are relevant in this regard. The biological spectrum (life forms and leaf size spectra) is the most important feature and is widely used in studying vegetation. The life forms of plant species in a region determine the macro and micro climatic conditions of the region (Shimwell, 1971) while determination of leaf size classes is useful for understanding the physiological processes of plant species and their communities (Oosting, 1956). Several works have been published on the floristic lists and ecological characteristics of different Pakistani and foreign locations, such as (Batalha et al., 2002; Kar et al., 2010; Amjad et al., 2012).

Conclusion

This study concludes that the flora of the Swabi region presents a diversity dominated by arid habitats, as evidenced by the maximum number of species found in this area. Although this study provides basic information on the flora of district Swabi, further studies are needed to assess the conservation status of the wild flora and collect quantitative data on the vegetation. Restoration of degraded forests is recommended, prioritizing on-site efforts to facilitate the natural flowering of plants in their natural habitat, rather than resorting to practices elsewhere.

Acknowledgements

The authors highly thankful to anonymous reviewers for their comments to improve the manuscript. We are also thankful to local communities for their help during data collection.

Novelty Statement

This study provides the first comprehensive analysis of the floristic composition and biological spectrum of District Swabi, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa. It highlights unique ecological patterns and adaptive plant strategies in an underexplored region of Pakistan.

Author’s Contribution

Anwar Hussain Khan, Nasira Bibi: Collected and analyzed the data.

Rayyan Komal and Shabir Ahmad: Wrote the text.

Huma Gul: Wrote the final version of the text.

All authors approved the final version of the manuscript.

List of abbreviations

HG, Huma Gul; ISL, Herbarium of Quaid-i-Azam University Islamabad, Pakistan; QAU, Quaid-i-Azam University, Islamabad, Pakistan.

Conflict of interest

The authors have declared no conflict of interest.

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