Special Issue:
Advancements in Animal Health and Production in Low and Middle-Income Countries
Prevalence and Control Measures of Mycoplasma Infections in Small Ruminants
Ranya Sami Nadhim1*, Zuhair I. Al-Mashhadani2, Shaymaa Allawy Obead3, Zahraa A. Al-Ameri4, Zeid Alsadoon5, Hasanain A.J. Gharban6, Abdul-Kareem Nasir7, Maha Marouf8, Hayder Musaad Al-Tmimi9
1Department of Medical Laboratory Techniques, Al-Turath University, Baghdad, Iraq; 2Department of Medical Laboratories Technology, Al-Nisour University College, Baghdad, Iraq; 3Department of Medical Laboratory Techniques, Al-Mussaib Technical Institute, Al-Furat Al-Awsat Technical University, Iraq; 4Department of Medical Laboratory Techniques, Al-Farahidi University, Baghdad, Iraq; 5Department of Microbiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Wasit University, Wasit, Iraq; 6Department of Internal and Preventive Veterinary Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Wasit, Wasit, Iraq; 7Mazaya University College, Iraq; 8Al-Zahrawi University College, Karbala, Iraq ; 9 College of Health and Medical, Al-Bayan University.
Abstract | Mycoplasma infections are a major contributor to respiratory disease in small ruminants and account for substantial financial losses in livestock production globally. This research explores the prevalence as well as control of Mycoplasma infections in sheep and goats. A cross-sectional survey was carried out on various farms, including clinical evaluation, post-mortem, as well as molecular diagnostics like PCR and culture methods. The findings had an infection prevalence of 28.7% and showed Mycoplasma ovipneumoniae and Mycoplasma agalactiae as the most commonly diagnosed species. Sick animals usually manifested with respiratory impairment, nasal discharge, and lower productivity. Risk factors of low ventilation, congestion, and low biosecurity were found to significantly correlate with high infection. Concerning control measures, the research cites early diagnosis as an effective tool, enhanced farm hygiene, continuous vaccination, planned use of antibiotics, and quarantine procedures for freshly introduced animals as the most valuable control measures. Farmer training and periodic veterinary care were also significantly effective in managing infection burden. These results call for emphasis on comprehensive management practice to prevent Mycoplasma infections and augment animal health as well as productivity on small ruminant farms.
Keywords | Mycoplasma infections, Small ruminants, Sheep and goats, Prevalence, Disease control
Received | July 01, 2025; Accepted | August 02, 2025; Published | August 15, 2025
*Correspondence | Ranya Sami Nadhim, Department of Medical Laboratory Techniques, Al-Turath University, Baghdad, Iraq; Email: [email protected]
Citation | Nadhim RS, Al-Mashhadani ZI, Obead SA, Al-Ameri ZA, Alsadoon Z, Gharban HAJ, Nasir A-K, Marouf M, Al-Tmimi HM (2025). Prevalence and control measures of mycoplasma infections in small ruminants. J. Anim. Health Prod. 13(s1): 136-143.
DOI | https://dx.doi.org/10.17582/journal.jahp/2025/13.s1.136.143
ISSN (Online) | 2308-2801
Copyright: 2025 by the authors. Licensee ResearchersLinks Ltd, England, UK.
This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
INTRODUCTION
Mycoplasma infections are recognized as primary causes of respiratory and systemic diseases that significantly affect the health and productivity of small ruminants, especially goats and sheep (Gómez-Martín et al., 2013; Al-Saadi and Shwan, 2024). Pathogens such as Mycoplasma ovipneumoniae and Mycoplasma agalactiae are well known for causing persistent pneumonia, mastitis, arthritis, and reproductive disorders, which collectively lead to chronic herd-level losses (Akwuobu et al., 2014; Kadham et al., 2023). These infections disproportionately impact resource-poor farming systems, where access to veterinary care, preventive measures, and modern diagnostics is limited (Yatoo et al., 2018; Laylani et al., 2024; Noman and Ahmad, 2023). As a result, smallholder farmers experience considerable economic hardship due to reduced milk production, increased mortality, elevated treatment costs, and stunted animal growth (Deeney et al., 2021; Ahmad et al., 2019; Mohamad et al., 2025).
The continuous spread of Mycoplasma infections is mainly attributed to poor farm management practices, including overcrowded animal housing, inadequate ventilation, the absence of quarantine protocols, and shared feeding systems that accelerate disease transmission (Dudek et al., 2022; Zangana et al., 2022; Saadh et al., 2024). In rural areas, many livestock producers have minimal veterinary support and low awareness about disease prevention strategies, further exacerbating the problem (Paul et al., 2020; Ahmad et al., 2024; Abdulnabi et al., 2024). As a result, infection levels remain high, with repeated outbreaks causing continuous setbacks in affected regions (Kumar et al., 2014; Thabet and Alsalame, 2024; Alsalame, 2019).
Despite awareness of these risks, current control measures are insufficient. Vaccination programs are inconsistent or unavailable in many regions, and basic hygiene practices, animal segregation, and veterinary surveillance are rarely implemented effectively (Al-Momani et al., 2011; Govindarajan et al., 2023; Alsalame and Laylani, 2024). Addressing these challenges requires not only improving biosecurity protocols but also implementing farmer education initiatives and integrated disease management strategies tailored to local conditions (Chazel et al., 2010; Saed et al., 2024; Ahmad, 2025).
Given the scale of the problem, there is an urgent need to assess Mycoplasma infection prevalence, risk factors, and clinical patterns in small ruminant populations across different settings (Urie et al., 2019; Abed et al., 2024; Karupusamy et al., 2023). This study aims to investigate Mycoplasma infections in sheep and goats by examining prevalence rates, identifying key risk factors, describing clinical characteristics, and evaluating current control strategies (Chota et al., 2019; Al-Aameli et al., 2019; Hsu et al., 2024). Ultimately, the study seeks to propose sustainable and location-specific control measures that can be shared with veterinary authorities and smallholder farmers to improve herd health, reduce economic losses, and enhance the long-term sustainability of small ruminant production systems.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Study design
To find the prevalence and assess the management approaches for Mycoplasma infections in small ruminants, especially sheep and goats, there was a cross-sectional survey. The survey was conducted on several farms with intensive, semi-intensive, and extensive animal production systems from June 2024 to November 2024.
Study population and sample size
The survey had a total number of 150 small ruminants, both goats and sheep of different ages, sex, and physiological conditions. Animals were chosen by stratified random sampling for proper representation from diverse farm conditions and herd size.
Clinical examination and sample collection
All animals selected were subjected to a detailed clinical examination for the detection of symptoms indicative of Mycoplasma infection, such as:
Post-mortem analyses were carried out in the case of dead and culled animals, with emphasis on lung and thoracic lesions (Egwu et al., 2012).
The following samples were obtained:
The samples were aseptically harvested and sent in sterile packaging under refrigeration to the laboratory within 6 hours (Prats-van der Ham et al., 2015).
Laboratory diagnosis
Risk factor assessment
A set questionnaire was completed by 30 farmers dealing in livestock in order to get data on their management practices. Questions ranged from the housing and ventilation of animals to stocking densities and animal movements, cleaning cycles, quarantine processes for new arrivals, the administration of antibiotics, and vaccination schedules (Maksimovic et al., 2013). These answers were verified from actual observation upon visits to farms.
Assessment of control measures
The survey assessed the control practices implemented in each farm (Dudek et al., 2020). This included considering hygiene practices, vaccination protocols, antibiotic regimens, quarantine for new animals brought into the farm, veterinary services, and farmer training programs. The farms were thus grouped based on whether or not these tactics were being utilized, to see how they influenced lowering infection rates.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
This section presents a thorough explanation of the findings from clinical examinations, lab diagnosis, farmer questionnaires, and observations. The results indicate prevalence of Mycoplasma infection in small ruminants, associated clinical manifestations, risk factors, and effectiveness of control measures. The discussion interprets these findings against a background of available literature and field practice with the aim of providing valuable information for better disease management and control.
Prevalence of mycoplasma infections
A prevalence study involving 150 animals was used to establish the Mycoplasma infection prevalence in small ruminants (Windsor, 2022). The aim of the research was to establish the overall infection burden as well as demographic and species trends.
Table 1: Prevalence of mycoplasma species in small ruminants.
|
Infection status |
Number of animals |
Percentage (%) |
|
Mycoplasma ovipneumoniae |
26 |
17.3 |
|
Mycoplasma agalactiae |
17 |
11.3 |
|
Total positive cases |
43 |
28.7 |
|
Total negative cases |
107 |
71.3 |
Out of 150 tested animals for Mycoplasma infections Table 1 revealed 43 positive results which yielded an overall prevalence rate of 28.7%. Among the pathogens identified Mycoplasma ovipneumoniae appeared most frequently at 17.3% whereas Mycoplasma agalactiae registered at 11.3%. The infection rates showed goats had higher prevalence (31.4%) than sheep (26.0%) and young animals less than one year old experienced more severe infection (Ait Lbacha et al., 2017). The research area shows extensive Mycoplasma infection rates whose distribution depends on the species and age group of animals potentially due to variations in their immune systems and their management practices.
Clinical features and post-mortem findings
A thorough analysis of clinical signs and post-mortem examination was conducted to describe the clinical manifestations of Mycoplasma infection in small ruminants (Paul et al., 2021). The evaluation offers information on typical signs in infected animals and pathological alterations confirming clinical diagnosis.
Table 2: Frequency of clinical signs observed in infected animals.
|
Clinical sign |
Number of affected animals |
Percentage (%) |
|
Coughing |
35 |
81.3 |
|
Nasal discharge |
32 |
74.4 |
|
Respiratory distress |
29 |
67.4 |
|
Fever |
24 |
55.8 |
|
Decreased milk yield |
18 |
41.9 |
|
Loss of appetite/weight |
21 |
48.8 |
Table 2 emphasizes the fact that the respiratory symptoms prevailed among the affected animals, including coughing (81.3%), nasal discharge (74.4%), and respiratory distress (67.4%) as most common signs observed. Fever (55.8%) and loss of weight or appetite (48.8%) were also impressive, reflecting involvement at the systemic level (Santos et al., 2018). The infection’s productivity impact was indicated by 41.9% of animals manifesting a drop-in milk production. Post-mortem findings further supported these results by identifying characteristic lung lesions including consolidation, pleuritis, and serofibrinous exudate in severely infected goats (Heidari et al., 2018). These pathological and clinical findings together emphasize the respiratory-focused nature of Mycoplasma infections and their considerable contribution to animal well-being and farm productivity.
Risk factor assessment
Knowledge of the inherent risk factors responsible for the transmission of Mycoplasma infections in small ruminants is crucial for the development of effective preventive methods (Stuen, 2020). The following Table 3 highlights prominent risk factors detected through farmer questionnaires and field observations, along with their correlation with infection levels.
Table 3: Association of risk factors with mycoplasma infection rate.
|
Risk factor |
Farm % (Reported) |
Infection association |
|
Poor ventilation |
73% |
Strong |
|
Overcrowding |
68% |
Strong |
|
No quarantine for new animals |
61% |
Strong |
|
Inadequate sanitation |
65% |
Moderate |
|
Shared feeding/watering points |
79% |
Strong |
Table 3 indicates that a number of environmental and management practices are highly associated with increased Mycoplasma infection levels (Poumarat et al., 2014). Poor ventilation (73%), overcrowding (68%), and the lack of quarantine procedures for new animals (61%) were all strongly associated with infection. Furthermore, 79% of farms had shared feeding and watering points, another practice highly associated with disease spread. Insufficient sanitation, as indicated by 65% of the farms, had a moderate correlation with infections. These results highlight that poor biosecurity, suboptimal infrastructure, and inefficient herd management are key risk indicators leading to the high prevalence of Mycoplasma infections among the population under study.
Effectiveness of control measures
Successful management of Mycoplasma infections in small ruminants relies on the application of holistic herd health management practices (Jaÿ et al., 2021). This analysis examines the impact of varying combinations of control strategies on infection incidence to identify the significance of integrated approaches to preventing disease on farms.
Table 4: Impact of control measures on infection prevalence
|
Control measures implemented |
Number of farms |
Avg. infection rate (%) |
|
Vaccination + Hygiene + Quarantine + Vet visit |
10 |
13.2 |
|
Only hygiene and vet visit |
8 |
21.7 |
|
No consistent measures |
12 |
39.8 |
Table 4 illustrates a strong negative correlation between the level of control measures taken and the mean infection rate (Chakraborty et al., 2014). The farms that practiced a comprehensive method integrating vaccination, hygiene measures, quarantine procedures, and frequent veterinary consultations had the lowest infection rate of 13.2%. Those that applied only hygiene procedures and veterinary assistance had a comparatively higher infection rate of 21.7%. Conversely, farms with no regular control measures had the highest incidence, with an average of 39.8% (Chota, 2021). This trend clearly indicates that integrated, multi-pronged control measures are much more effective in reducing Mycoplasma infections than single or irregular measures.
Farmer education and veterinary assistance
Farmer training and availability of veterinary care were also measured. Most farmers who adopted control practices indicated they received some type of veterinary advice or training.
Table 5: Role of farmer training and veterinary support.
|
Parameters |
% Farms reporting |
Infection trend |
|
Trained farmers on disease control |
56% |
Lower prevalence |
|
Regular vet visits |
68% |
Lower prevalence |
|
No formal guidance |
32% |
Higher prevalence |
The figures given in Table 5 are clear to show that farmer training and continuous veterinary assistance have a great bearing on Mycoplasma infection prevalence among small ruminants. Those farms where farmers were trained in disease control had a much lower infection rate, indicating that well-informed livestock management practices immediately lead to improved animal health (Parker et al., 2018). Concomitantly, 68% of farms that had regular veterinary visits showed declining infection levels, underlining the importance of professional veterinary management in early diagnosis, treatment, and prevention. The infection rates at farms without formal guidance (32%) kept growing which proves the essential role of standard farmer education programs and regular veterinary support (Hampel et al., 2014). Effective Mycoplasma infection control depends heavily on farmer education programs and veterinary service accessibility according to this reading.
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
The study confirms Mycoplasma infections persist as widespread and financially important health issues affecting young animals and goats among small ruminants. The study confirms that inadequate ventilation along with overcrowded conditions without quarantine measures and unhygienic conditions directly lead to higher infection rates. Strong infection control emerges from early vaccination programs which combine with rigorous hygiene protocols and periodic veterinary help and suitable farmer training programs. Livestock farmers need to put in place detailed biosecurity plans and management techniques as preventive measures. The authorities need to support farmer training programs while providing easy veterinary access and encouraging regular diagnostic tool usage through PCR for early disease detection. A successful approach to control Mycoplasma infections in small ruminant populations needs surveillance combined with education and preventive veterinary management strategies.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors would like to thank Al-Bayan University, as well as the field technicians who helped in the study.
NOVELTY STATEMENT
This work is a new and integrated strategy by the assessment at once of both the prevalence and the efficacy of control measures of Mycoplasma infection in small ruminants across varied farm management systems. Other studies have tended to look at either epidemiology or diagnostics at once. This work combines molecular diagnostics (PCR), clinical and post-mortem diagnoses, and risk factor analysis with farmer practices and veterinary behavior. The integration of farmer perception, veterinary care, and farm-level interventions in terms of infection rate is a complete representation of disease dynamics. The diverse analysis fills the gap between lab diagnosis and realistic farm-level control of diseases, adding new knowledge to small ruminant disease management.
AUTHOR’S CONTRIBUTION
All of the trials were designed by Ranya Sami Nadhim, Zuhair I. Al-Mashhadani and Shaymaa Allawy Obead. Zahraa A. Al-Ameri, Zeid Alsadoon and Hasanain A.J. Gharban conducted all of the tests, gathered the data, and composed the manuscript draft. Abdul-Kareem Nasir and Maha Marouf helped with the data analysis that was done to prepare the work for submission to the journal. The final draft of the work was reviewed and approved by all authors for publication in the Journal of Animal and Health Production.
Ethical consideration
Not applicable.
Conflict of interest
The authors have declared no conflict of interest.
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