Research Article

Bryophyllum pinnatum as an Additive in the Diets of Weaned Rabbit: Effect on Performance, Carcass Analysis and Meat Quality

Razaq Animashahun1*, Olayinka Alabi1, Ooreoluwa Adegboye1, Favour Akinwale1, Adedeji Animashahun2, Oluwabori Adefioye1

1Department of Animal Science, College of Agricultural Sciences, Landmark University, P. M. B. 1001, Omu Aran, Kwara State, Nigeria; 2Department of Animal Breeding and Genetics, Federal University of Agriculture Abeokuta, Abeokuta, Ogun State, Nigeria.

Received | March 31, 2025; Accepted | July 05, 2025; Published | September 05, 2025

*Correspondence | Razaq A. Animashahun, Department of Animal Science, College of Agricultural Sciences, Landmark University, P. M. B. 1001, Omu Aran, Kwara State, Nigeria; Email: [email protected]

Citation | Animashahun R, Alabi O, Adegboye O, Akinwale F, Animashahun A, Adefioye O (2025). Bryophyllum pinnatum as an additive in the diets of weaned rabbit: effect on performance, carcass analysis and meat quality. Adv. Anim. Vet. Sci., 13(9):2006-2017.

DOI | https://dx.doi.org/10.17582/journal.aavs/2025/13.9.2006.2017

ISSN (Online) | 2307-8316

Copyright: 2025 by the authors. Licensee ResearchersLinks Ltd, England, UK.

This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

INTRODUCTION

Food security remains a pressing global issue, particularly in sub-Saharan Africa, where limited food access is a key indicator of poverty (Marchetti and Secondi, 2022). Rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus) offer an efficient and sustainable means of animal protein production and contribute to achieving the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) 1 and 2 by promoting poverty reduction and hunger eradication (Johnson et al., 2024).

The increasing demand for sustainable animal production systems has spurred interest in natural alternatives to synthetic antibiotic growth promoters (AGPs). Although antibiotic growth promoters (AGPs) improve feed efficiency and growth, concerns over antimicrobial resistance and drug residues have led to global restrictions (Izah et al., 2025). This has prompted interest in natural alternatives such as enzymes, probiotics, organic acids, and phytogenics (Kaur et al., 2024). Phytogenic additives, in particular, offer antimicrobial, antioxidant, and immunomodulatory benefits. Bryophyllum pinnatum, a tropical plant in the Crassulaceae family, is rich in bioactive compounds like flavonoids, tannins, alkaloids, and saponins (Namadina et al., 2020; Ojo et al., 2021), which may enhance nutrient use, immunity, and growth in livestock (Obianwuna et al., 2024).

In addition to its pharmacological properties, B. pinnatum contains essential minerals (e.g., calcium, phosphorus, magnesium) and has a moderate crude protein and fiber profile, which may enhance its dietary value in rabbit feeding systems (Omah et al., 2022). Studies in other species, including Winstar rats and catfish fingerlings, have demonstrated its efficacy in reducing disease incidence, improving feed conversion, and enhancing carcass traits and blood profiles (Oladipupo, 2024).

Despite growing interest in phytogenic feed additives, research on Bryophyllum pinnatum as a dietary supplement in rabbit nutrition remains scarce. Most existing studies have focused on its ethnomedicinal applications or effects in poultry and ruminants, with limited data available for monogastric herbivores like rabbits. Given the unique hindgut fermentation and caecotrophic behavior of rabbits, species-specific evaluation is essential. This study addresses critical knowledge gaps by (i) investigating the effect of B. pinnatum on growth performance and feed conversion efficiency in weaned rabbits, (ii) evaluating its influence on carcass traits and meat quality, and (iii) assessing the safety and organ health responses to different inclusion levels. Targeting weaned rabbits is particularly relevant, as this stage is characterized by heightened susceptibility to digestive disturbances and stress, underscoring the need for effective, natural growth promoters as alternatives to antibiotic growth promoters (AGPs).

This study, therefore, investigates the effects of dietary inclusion of Bryophyllum pinnatum leaf meal (BPLM) on the growth performance, carcass characteristics, and meat quality of weaned rabbits.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Research location

This study was carried out in Landmark University’s Teaching and Research Farm and Animal Science Laboratory, Omu Aran, Kwara State of Nigeria; Omu Aran is located on a portion of Elliu Hill, and it is Kwara state’s highest point above sea level with geographical coordinates of Latitude 8.9N and Longitude 50.61E

Sources of feed ingredients

Tithonia diversifolia and Bryophyllum. pinnatum (B. pinnatum) leaves were obtained from the Teaching and Research Farm of Landmark University. All other ingredient for diet composition were procured from Omu-Aran town Kwara state. The leaves of B. pinnatum were air dried at 29 °C before being ground and added to the compounded feed.

Proximate analysis of B. pinnatum leaves

The proximate composition of Bryophyllum pinnatum leaf meal was determined using standard AOAC methods (AOAC) methods (Fahey et al., 2019) as follows:

Moisture content (AOAC 925.10) was determined by oven-drying 2 g of sample at 105°C to constant weight. Moisture percentage was calculated as:

Crude protein (CP) (AOAC 968.06) was estimated using the Kjeldahl method. One gram of dried sample was digested with concentrated sulfuric acid and selenium catalyst, distilled into boric acid, and titrated with hydrochloric acid (HCl). Nitrogen content was multiplied by 6.25 to obtain crude protein.

Crude fiber (CF) (AOAC 978.10) was determined by sequential digestion of the sample with sulfuric acid and sodium hydroxide. The insoluble residue was dried, weighed, and expressed as a percentage of the original sample weight.

Ash content (AOAC 942.05) was determined by incinerating 1 g of sample in a muffle furnace at 550°C until a constant weight was achieved.

Ether extract (EE) (AOAC 920.39) was determined using a Soxhlet extractor with petroleum ether as the solvent. The extract was dried and weighed to quantify lipid content.

Nitrogen-free extract (NFE) was calculated by difference using the formula:

Experimental animals, design, diets, management and duration

Experimental animals: A total of 48 weaned male Hyla breed rabbits, six weeks old, were procured from a reputable rabbitry in Omu-Aran, Kwara State, Nigeria, for this study.

Experimental design: A completely randomized design (CRD) was employed. Forty-eight weaned Hyla male rabbits (5–6 weeks old) were randomly assigned to four dietary treatments (0%, 1.0%, 1.5%, and 2.0% Bryophyllum pinnatum leaf meal), with each treatment comprising three replicates of four rabbits (n= 12 per treatment). Randomization was performed using a computer-generated sequence. Each replicate group was housed in a separate but identical cage. To reduce potential cage effects, cages were standardized for size, ventilation, lighting, and hygiene (Figure 1).

 

Animal management: The experiment adhered to the ethical guidelines set by the Landmark University Ethical Committee for Experimental Animal Use, in compliance with EU Directive 2010/63/EU on the protection of animals used for scientific purposes (European Nation, 2010). Before the rabbits’ arrival, the hutches, feeders, and drinkers were thoroughly cleaned and disinfected. To minimize stress and allow acclimatization, the rabbits were initially fed a commercial diet (crude protein-16%, ME -2600 Kcal/kg, crude fiber-14 %, Calcium-1 %, and Phosphorus -0.6 %) bought from a reputable retailer before the study commenced.

Each hutch was equipped with a feeder and a drinker to ensure proper feeding and hydration. Upon arrival, the rabbits received an oral anti-stress (Vitalyte©) treatment. Throughout the study, they had continuous access to clean drinking water, and standard management practices, including biosecurity measures, were strictly observed.

Experimental diets: The dietary treatment one (T1) served as the control diet without B. pinnatum inclusion, while B. pinnatum was added at varying levels of 1, 1.5 and 2% to dietary treatments T2, T3, and T4, respectively. Common forage (Tithonia diversifolia) was also supplied to each replicate at 200 grams per day. The diets were isocaloric and isonitrogenous with respective values of 2700 kcals/kg and 16.50 %. The experimental diets composition is as shown in Table 1. The breakdown of the diets is as follows:

• T1: Rabbit concentrate with 0 % B. pinnatum leaf meal (BPLM)
• T2: Concentrate with 1 % B. pinnatum leaf meal (BPLM)
• T3: Concentrate with 1.5 % BPLM
• T4: concentrate with 2 % BPLM

 

Table 1: Experimental diets’ composition.

Feed ingredients (%)	Inclusion levels of Bryophyllum pinnatum
	T1 (0%)	T2 (1%)	T3 (1.5%)	T4 (2%)
Maize	39.39	38.90	38.72	38.70
Soya bean meal	9.89	9.87	9.81	9.75
Wheat offal	26.29	25.94	25.84	25.60
Groundnut cake	6.59	6.58	6.66	6.52
BPLM	0.00	1.00	1.50	2.00
Bone meal	4.00	4.00	4.00	4.00
Premix	0.25	0.25	0.25	0.25
Lysine	0.01	0.01	0.01	0.01
Methionine	0.15	0.15	0.15	0.15
Salt	0.25	0.25	0.25	0.25
Calculated analysis
Crude protein (%)	16.54	16.51	16.56	16.43
Crude fiber (%)	4.29	4.42	4.50	4.55
Metabolizable energy (Kcal/Kg)	2724	2725	2727	2728

 

BPLM= Bryophyllum pinnatum leaf meal.

 

Feed intake and growth performance assessment

To evaluate feed intake, the experimental diet was offered ad libitum each morning, while fresh Tithonia diversifolia forage was provided in the evening. Leftover feed was weighed daily before the next feeding. Water was continuously available in plastic jugs to ensure proper hydration.

Each rabbit was weighed weekly, before the morning feeding, to monitor weight gain. Feed intake was determined as the difference between the feed supplied and the feed leftover, using the following formula:

Feed Intake = Feed Supplied − Feed Leftover

Weight gain was calculated as follows:

Weight gain = Final weight at the end of the week – Initial weight at the beginning of the week

The feed conversion ratio (FCR), which measures the efficiency of feed utilization for weight gain, was determined using the formula:

FCR = Feed intake/ Weight gain

Slaughter and carcass evaluation

At the end of the 7-week feeding trial, one rabbit per replicate was randomly selected and weighed. The selected animals underwent an overnight feed withdrawal to standardize gut fill. Post-fasting weights were recorded prior to humane slaughter.

Slaughter was carried out in accordance with institutional ethical guidelines and national regulations, including the Animal Diseases (Control) Act and the Nigerian Institute of Animal Science (NIAS) Code of Conduct. Rabbits were humanely stunned using a mechanical method to induce immediate unconsciousness, followed by exsanguination through severing of the major blood vessels. Animals were suspended to allow complete blood drainage.

After slaughter, carcasses were processed by singeing to remove fur, followed by evisceration. Primal cuts were separated and weighed using a calibrated digital scale. Internal organs were also excised and weighed to assess potential effects on visceral development.

Carcass yield calculations

Dressing percentage was determined as the proportion of the dressed carcass weight relative to the live weight, calculated using the formula:

Meat quality evaluation

pH Measurement: The pH of the Biceps femoris muscle was determined following the method described by Barón et al. (2021). Before measurement, the digital pH electrode was cleaned and immersed in distilled water to calibrate the pH meter. Once stabilized, the electrode was inserted into the meat sample, and the pH of each rabbit was measured and recorded.

Cooking loss: To determine cooking loss, a 5 g muscle sample was weighed and cooked in a water bath until it reached an internal temperature of 75 °C. After cooling, the sample was blotted dry with filter paper and reweighed using an analytical scale. Cooking loss was calculated as the percentage difference between the pre-cooked and post-cooked sample weights, using the formula:

Water holding capacity (WHC): The water holding capacity (WHC) was determined following the method of Nelson et al. (2024) using the Biceps femoris muscle. A 3 g meat sample was placed on filter paper, and excess surface moisture was removed using tissue paper. The sample was positioned at the center of a new filter paper, which was then covered with another filter paper. A 2.50 kg standard weight was placed on top and left for 5 minutes. Afterward, the weight and filter paper were removed, and the moisture ring around the meat sample was observed. The diameter of the moisture ring was measured using a veneer caliper, and WHC was calculated as follows:

Statistical analysis

The results are expressed as mean values from three replicates per treatment group. Data were subjected to one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) using the General Linear Model (GLM) procedure in SAS version 9.4 (Cody, 2018), following the model:

Yij= μ + Ti + eij

Where; Yij = Observed measurement, μ = Overall mean, Ti = Effect of leaf meal and eij = Experimental error.

Significant differences between treatment means were assessed using Duncan’s Multiple Range Test (Duncan, 1955), with statistical significance set at p < 0.05. SAS version 9.4 provides PROC GLM, which is well-suited for ANOVA in a completely randomized design (CRD). This procedure allows for mean comparisons across treatment groups and supports various post-hoc tests using the LSMEANS statement for detailed multiple comparisons. The SAS interface and streamlined syntax enhance the efficiency of ANOVA analyses.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Proximate composition of dried Bryophyllum pinnatum leaves

The proximate composition of dried Bryophyllum pinnatum leaves is presented in Table 2. The proximate values obtained in this study are consistent with previously reported values for Bryophyllum pinnatum leaf meal (BPLM) (Omah et al., 2022).

 

Tale 2: Proximate composition of dried Bryophyllum pinnatum leaves.

Proximate parameters	Percentage (%)
Moisture	11.96 ± 0.24
Crude protein (CP)	5.79 ± 0.18
Crude fibre (CF)	6.75 ± 0.23
Ether extract (EE)	5.90 ± 0.77
Ash	3.37 ± 0.14
Nitrogen free extract (NFE)	66.55 ± 0.64

 

The moisture content (11.96 ± 0.24 %) is relatively low, suggesting good shelf-life stability when stored properly. A lower moisture content in feed ingredients helps prevent microbial spoilage and extends their usability in animal diets (Adeyemi and Abu, 2024).

The crude protein (CP) content was 5.79 ± 0.18 %, which, although lower than conventional protein sources like soybean meal (approximately 44 % CP), is comparable to some forage materials used in rabbit nutrition (Okpakpor et al., 2024). This indicates that Bryophyllum pinnatum can serve as a supplementary protein source or feed additive; however, additional protein-rich ingredients would be necessary to meet the optimal dietary requirements of weaned rabbits.

Crude fiber (CF) was recorded at 6.75 ± 0.23 %, which falls within the acceptable range for rabbit diets. Rabbits require a substantial amount of dietary fiber to support gut health and prevent digestive disturbances such as enteritis (Gidenne et al., 2017). The fiber content of Bryophyllum pinnatum is slightly lower than that of Leucaena leucocephala leaves (10 – 12 % CF) but can still contribute to maintaining proper gut motility in rabbits.

The ether extract (EE) content, representing fat or lipid levels, was 5.90 ± 0.77 %, suggesting that Bryophyllum pinnatum could serve as an additional energy source in rabbit diets. Compared to conventional forages, its lipid content is relatively high and is similar to that of Moringa oleifera leaves (5.60 %) (Makkar and Becker, 1997). Increased fat content in rabbit diets has been linked to improved feed efficiency and coat quality (Alejandro et al., 2021).

The ash content, which represents the total mineral composition, was 3.37 ± 0.14 %, indicating a moderate mineral supply. This value is comparable to the ash content found in commonly used forages such as Gliricidia sepium leaves (4.0 – 5.2 %) (Akinmutimi, 2004), suggesting that Bryophyllum pinnatum may help meet mineral requirements essential for growth and bone development.

The nitrogen-free extract (NFE), which primarily consists of digestible carbohydrates, was notably high at 66.55 ± 0.64 %. This suggests that Bryophyllum pinnatum is a rich energy source, comparable to other high-NFE forages such as cassava leaves (Ogunbosoye and Babayemi, 2010). High-energy forages play a crucial role in enhancing the overall growth performance of weaned rabbits by providing sufficient metabolizable energy for maintenance and weight gain.

Overall, the proximate composition of Bryophyllum pinnatum suggests its potential as an alternative feed ingredient in rabbit diets. Its high NFE content provides an energy advantage, while its fiber content supports digestive function. The proximate composition of Bryophyllum pinnatum leaf meal (BPLM), characterized by a low crude protein content (5.79%) and a high nitrogen-free extract (NFE) value (66.55%), influenced its role in diet formulation. The protein content was substantially below the recommended range for growing rabbits (16–18%), indicating that BPLM could not serve as a primary protein source. Therefore, its inclusion in the experimental diets was not for protein sufficiency but for its phytogenic and functional properties. To meet the rabbits’ protein requirements, conventional protein-rich ingredients such as soybean meal and groundnut cake were used to supplement the diets. Meanwhile, the high NFE content indicated a significant presence of digestible carbohydrates, which can contribute to energy supply. However, excess NFE, especially from a single plant source, may affect the optimal fiber-to-energy ratio critical for maintaining gut health and function in rabbits. As such, dietary formulations were carefully adjusted to balance energy levels and fiber intake, ensuring the inclusion of BPLM at moderate levels (not exceeding 2%) without compromising overall nutrient adequacy. This strategic supplementation allowed for the evaluation of BPLM primarily as a natural feed additive rather than a nutritional staple.

Growth performance

The growth performance indices were not significantly (P > 0.05) affected by dietary BPLM inclusion. The highest feed intake, total weight gain, and feed conversion ratio recorded in T3 (diet containing 1.5% BPLM), as shown in Table 3. Although differences were not statistically significant (P > 0.05), rabbits fed 1.5% BPLM showed numerically higher weight gain and better feed efficiency compared to other groups, suggesting a potential beneficial trend that may merit further investigation. The lack of statistical significance may be attributed to biological variation among individual animals. The result suggests that this inclusion level enhances the growth performance of rabbits. The trend as shown in the growth performance may be attributed to the bioactive compounds in BPLM as reported in the literature (Dhumane et al., 2024; Namadina et al., 2020; Ojo et al., 2021), which possess antioxidant, antibacterial, and anti-coccidial properties. These bioactive compounds, such as flavonoids, tannins, and alkaloids, likely contribute to gut microbial modulation, improved gut health, and enhanced nutrient utilization, leading to better growth performance (Obianwuna et al., 2024). The ability of BPLM to act as an antimicrobial agent suggests that it could suppress pathogenic bacteria while promoting beneficial gut microbiota, leading to improved digestion and nutrient absorption (Obioma et al., 2017; Vignesh et al., 2023). The observed enhancement in performance aligns with the hypothesis that phytogenic feed additives, such as B. pinnatum leaves, can improve livestock health and productivity (Nwonuma et al., 2023).

Additionally, the best feed conversion ratio observed in rabbits fed a diet with 1.5 % BPLM suggests that this inclusion level is optimal for efficient feed utilization. This finding demonstrates that the bioactive components in BPLM enhanced metabolic efficiency, possibly through improved protein synthesis and reduced oxidative stress in the animals (Dhumane et al., 2024).

Moreover, studies on medicinal plants in livestock feeding have shown that optimal inclusion levels must balance beneficial effects with potential anti-nutritional factors (Alem, 2024). Excessive levels of BPLM could introduce high concentrations of tannins and oxalates, which may negatively impact nutrient digestibility (da Silva Aguiar et al., 2023). However, the present study suggests that up to 2 % BPLM inclusion is within the beneficial range, promoting optimal growth without adverse effects.

The observation of statistically significant differences in certain carcass parameters (e.g., singed weight, dressed weight, dressing percentage, and specific cut parts) without corresponding differences in live weight among treatment groups is attributable to variations in carcass composition and nutrient partitioning rather than total body mass. Live weight is a gross estimate of total body mass, which includes gut fill, internal organs, and other non-carcass components. It does not always reflect the quality or quantity of edible portions such as muscle tissue or fat, which are critical in meat production (Szendrő et al., 2012).

The dietary inclusion of Bryophyllum pinnatum leaf meal (BPLM), especially at higher levels (e.g., 2%), may have influenced protein and energy utilization, resulting in altered muscle accretion and fat deposition. These physiological changes can lead to differences in dressing percentage and the yield of commercially important cuts even when live weight remains statistically similar.

In particular, the anti-nutritional components and bioactive phytochemicals in B. pinnatum such as flavonoids, saponins, and tannins are known to modulate gut function, metabolism, and protein digestibility. Such effects may impair efficient muscle deposition while increasing the proportion of non-carcass tissues or reducing fat stores. This may explain the lower dressing percentage and reduced back and limb weights observed in the 2% BPLM group. Therefore, the significant variations in carcass characteristics in the absence of live weight differences indicate that BPLM affected not just growth, but the quality and composition of that growth. This reinforces the need to assess carcass yield and composition independently of live weight when evaluating dietary treatments in meat-producing animals.

Effects of the Bryophyllum pinnatum leaf meal on the carcass parameters

The effects of dietary Bryophyllum pinnatum leaf meal (BPLM) on carcass characteristics of grower rabbits are presented in Table 4. While live weight, slaughter weight, eviscerated weight, and dressing percentage showed numerical differences across treatments, only singed weight, dress weight, and dressing percentage were significantly affected (P < 0.05).

Rabbits fed 1% BPLM recorded the highest live weight (1.63 kg) and slaughter weight (1.59 kg), closely followed by the 1.5% BPLM group (1.51 kg and 1.49 kg, respectively). In contrast, rabbits on the 2% BPLM diet showed the lowest live (1.27 kg) and slaughter (1.25 kg) weights, suggesting that excessive inclusion may negatively affect growth.

 

Table 3: Growth performance of grower rabbits fed different B. pinnatum leaves meal inclusion.

Parameters (g)	Inclusion levels of B. pinnatum leaves meal					P value
	T1 (0%)	T2 (1%)	T3 (1.5%)	T4 (2%)	SEM
Final weight	1473.80	1537.00	1397.30	1226.30	59.63	0.21
Initial weight	554.33	576.33	542.53	553.73	6.52	0.23
Daily feed intake	57.18	57.25	57.80	55.54	5.58	1.00
Total feed intake	2801.90	2805.30	2832.20	2721.50	272.79	1.00
Daily weight gain	23.71	26.70	32.34	21.54	2.08	0.21
Total weight gain	1161.80	1308.50	1584.50	1055.50	102.04	0.21
FCR	2.59	2.13	1.82	2.64	0.24	0.44

 

SEM = Standard Error of means; T1 = Control diet; T2 = diet containing 1 % Bryophyllum pinnatum leaf meal (BPLM); T3 = diet containing 1.5 % BPLM; T4 = diet containing 2 % BPLM. FCR = feed conversion ratio.

 

Table 4: Carcass evaluation of grower rabbits fed different B. pinnatum leaves meal inclusion.

Parameters	Inclusion levels of B. pinnatum leaves meal				SEM	P value
	0%	1%	1.5%	2%
Live weight (kg)	1.56	1.63	1.51	1.27	2.04	0.11
Slaughter weight (kg)	1.50	1.59	1.49	1.25	4.28	0.11
Singed weight (kg)	1.43a	1.51ab	1.41ab	1.17b	0.33	0.02
Eviscerated weight (kg)	1.31	1.44	1.30	1.26	0.33	0.08
Dress weight (g)	866.58a	905.58a	865.35a	643.70b	0.01	0.01
Dressing %	55.55ab	55.56a	57.31a	50.68b	0.69	0.01
Head (g)	133.29a	128.26ab	114.46b	112.96b	2.39	0.09
Neck (g)	25.68a	21.16b	37.51a	23.94b	1.50	0.06
Chest (g)	160.75	194.51	148.87	138.24	8.46	0.25
Back (g)	252.76ab	258.76a	275.89a	140.71b	14.32	0.87
Forelimbs (g)	126.32a	127.73a	126.61a	100.05b	2.78	0.06
Hindlimbs (g)	218.65	191.17	200.52	163.47	7.13	0.19
Trotters (g)	148.52	135.97	133.54	132.96	2.41	0.71
Sacrum (g)	108.17	133.41	113.46	101.20	11.19	0.77

 

a, b = Means (in the same row) with different letters in superscripts differ significantly (p<0.05); SEM = Standard Error of means; BPLM = Bryophyllum pinnatum leaf meal; T1 – Treatment 1 (diet containing 0 % BPLM); T2- Treatment 2 (diet containing 1 % BPLM); T3- Treatment 3 (diet containing 1.5 % BPLM); T4- Treatment 4 (diet containing 2 % BPLM).

 

Dressing percentage peaked at 1.5% BPLM (57.31%), significantly higher than at 2% inclusion (50.68%) and numerically higher than the control and 1% groups. This suggests that moderate BPLM inclusion (1–1.5%) may enhance carcass yield, potentially due to improved nutrient utilization and gut health.

This enhancement could be linked to the bioactive compounds in Bryophyllum pinnatum, such as flavonoids, tannins, and saponins which are known to support gut microbial balance and nutrient absorption (Chen et al., 2022; Celi et al., 2017). Our findings align with those of Umeh et al. (2023) and Ekunseitan et al. (2021), who observed improved carcass characteristics at moderate inclusion levels of phytogenic feed additives. The reduction in performance at 2% inclusion may reflect reduced palatability or an increased metabolic cost of detoxifying excess phytochemicals (Adedapo et al., 2015), a trend also observed by Nantapo et al. (2024) with Moringa oleifera in broilers.

Overall, the results suggest that Bryophyllum pinnatum leaf meal can be effectively included at 1.0–1.5% in rabbit diets to improve carcass traits without compromising performance.

The relative weights of selected organs in grower rabbits fed diets containing Bryophyllum pinnatum leaf meal (BPLM) are presented in Table 5. Of all the organs assessed, only the liver showed a statistically significant response (P < 0.05) to dietary treatment. Liver weight increased from 2.64% in the control group to 3.77% in the group fed 2% BPLM, with the lowest value (2.40%) observed at the 1.5% inclusion level.

 

Table 5: The relative organs’ sizes of rabbits fed diets containing BPLM.

Parameters (%)	Inclusion levels of B. pinnatum leaves meal				SEM	P value
	0%	1%	1.5%	2%
GIT	17.44	17.02	16.30	17.52	0.80	0.94
Heart	0.65	0.65	0.60	0.60	0.01	0.85
Liver	2.64cb	3.02b	2.40c	3.77a	0.07	0.01
Spleen	0.05	0.05	0.04	0.05	0.00	0.73
Kidney	0.70	0.75	0.63	0.75	0.03	0.45
Gall bladder	0.04	0.05	0.06	0.06	0.01	0.58
Stomach	0.90b	0.94ab	0.99ab	1.07a	0.02	0.15

 

a, b, c = Means (in the same row) with different letters in superscripts differ significantly (p<0.05); SEM = Standard Error of means; BPLM = Bryophyllum pinnatum leaf meal; T1 – Treatment 1 (diet containing 0 % BPLM); T2- Treatment 2 (diet containing 1 % BPLM); T3- Treatment 3 (diet containing 1.5 % BPLM); T4- Treatment 4 (diet containing 2 % BPLM).

 

This significant increase in liver weight is likely due to the liver’s central role in metabolizing and detoxifying the bioactive compounds in B. pinnatum, which is rich in secondary metabolites such as flavonoids, saponins, alkaloids, tannins, and bufadienolides (Adedapo et al., 2015). These compounds are absorbed and routed through the hepatic portal vein, where the liver undergoes adaptive hypertrophy to cope with increased metabolic demands (Onu, 2010).

Weights of other organs heart, kidneys, spleen, gastrointestinal tract (GIT), stomach, and gall bladder were not significantly affected (P > 0.05), indicating that BPLM inclusion did not induce systemic organ hypertrophy or toxicity. This finding aligns with reports by Oloruntola et al. (2018), who observed no adverse effects on internal organs in rabbits fed phytogenic leaf meals such as Moringa oleifera and Tithonia diversifolia.

Although stomach weight increased numerically from 0.90% to 1.07% with increasing BPLM inclusion, the change was not statistically significant (P= 0.15). This trend may reflect mild physiological responses to dietary fiber and phytochemicals, such as enhanced muscular activity or mucosal interaction, but values remained within normal physiological limits (Ajayi et al., 2005).

The liver’s sensitivity makes it a valuable indicator of dietary exposure to phytochemicals. Similar increases in liver weight have been reported in broilers supplemented with ginger and turmeric (Kanduri and Muralidhar, 2020) and in rabbits fed cloves (Ayoade et al., 2019), suggesting that moderate liver enlargement can be a normal metabolic adaptation to plant-based additives.

Overall, the findings indicate that dietary BPLM up to 2% inclusion is safe and does not compromise organ integrity. The beneficial effects observed at 1.0–1.5% inclusion, particularly on carcass yield and nutrient utilization, support its potential as a natural growth promoter. Comparable results have been reported for other phytogenics such as Vernonia amygdalina (Onu, 2010), cloves (Ayoade et al., 2019), and moringa (Akib et al., 2024), which have shown improvements in gut health and performance in monogastric animals.

Further studies focusing on meat quality attributes such as tenderness, oxidative stability, and shelf life (Oyeyinka et al., 2021) would help to fully characterize the functional potential of Bryophyllum pinnatum as a feed additive in rabbit nutrition.

Meat quality evaluation

Table 6 presents the results of the meat quality evaluation of grower rabbits fed diets containing graded levels of B. pinnatum leaf meal. Evaluating meat quality is essential in determining the acceptability, shelf stability, and overall consumer preference for rabbit meat. The parameters measured in this study (pH, water holding capacity, and cooking loss) are key indicators of meat quality and showed no significant differences (P > 0.05) across all dietary treatments, suggesting that the inclusion of Bryophyllum pinnatum leaf meal (BPLM) at different levels (1%, 1.5%, and 2%) did not negatively impact these quality attributes.

 

Table 6: Meat quality of grower rabbits fed diets containing graded levels of B. pinnatum.

Parameters (%)	Inclusion levels of B. pinnatum leaves meal				SEM	P value
	0%	1%	1.5%	2%
pH	6.45	6.47	6.44	6.46	0.02	0.95
WHC %	40.50	40.00	38.50	37.50	1.38	0.37
Cooking loss %	25.00	24.60	24.20	24.80	2.89	0.76

 

SEM = Standard Error of means; BPLM = Bryophyllum pinnatum leaf meal; WHC = water holding capacity; T1 – Treatment 1 (diet containing 0 % BPLM); T2- Treatment 2 (diet containing 1 % BPLM); T3- Treatment 3 (diet containing 1.5 % BPLM); T4- Treatment 4 (diet containing 2 % BPLM).

 

The pH values of the meat in this study ranged from 6.44 to 6.47, with no significant differences across dietary treatments. Meat pH is a crucial factor influencing color, tenderness, water-holding capacity (WHC), and microbial stability (Hayat et al., 2024). The recorded pH values fall within the acceptable range for rabbit meat, typically between 5.8 and 6.5 (Cullere and Dalle Zotte, 2018), indicating normal post-mortem glycolysis and muscle acidification.

The non-significant effect of BPLM inclusion suggests that it does not alter muscle glycogen metabolism or post-mortem lactic acid production. Similar findings were reported by Molina et al. (2017) in rabbits fed Amaranthus dubius leaves and by Rifat et al. (2024) in broiler chickens fed Moringa oleifera leaf meal, where no significant effects on meat pH were observed. This supports the hypothesis that phytogenic feed additives do not negatively influence post-mortem meat acidification when included at moderate levels.

Water holding capacity (WHC) and cooking loss were used as primary indicators of meat quality. WHC declined progressively with increasing inclusion levels of BPLM, with values ranging from 40.50 % in the control group (0 % BPLM) to 37.50 % at 2 % inclusion. However, the differences observed were not statistically (P > 0.05)significant. WHC measures the meat’s ability to retain its natural water content during processing and storage. Lower WHC often results in excessive drip loss, which affects meat texture and juiciness (Barbera, 2019). Although the decline in WHC across increasing BPLM inclusion levels was not statistically significant, the numerical trend may suggest minor alterations in muscle protein structure due to phytochemical interactions. Nonetheless, WHC values remained within acceptable limits for fresh meat. Further studies incorporating sensory evaluation are recommended to better understand the practical implications of these changes on consumer acceptability. The result aligns with the findings of Osinowo et al. (2021), who reported a similar non-significant decline in WHC when B. pinnatum was incorporated into broiler diets. However, contrasting results were reported by Adeyemi et al. (2020), who observed improved WHC in rabbits fed diets containing Moringa oleifera leaf meal. The difference in response may be due to variations in the phytochemical composition and antioxidant profiles of the leaves used. A similar trend was reported by Mohamed et al. (2023) when herbal plant extracts were included in rabbit diets.

Cooking loss also exhibited a slight reduction at 1.5% BPLM inclusion (24.20 %) compared to the control (25.00 %), though the variations were not statistically significant. Cooking loss values across all treatment groups remained relatively stable, suggesting that BPLM inclusion up to 2 % does not negatively impact the meat’s ability to retain moisture during heat processing. Cooking loss reflects meat moisture retention during heat processing and influences final meat yield. Lower cooking loss is desirable as it enhances meat succulence and economic value. The slight numerical reduction in cooking loss at 1.5 % BPLM inclusion suggests improved moisture retention, potentially due to the antioxidative properties of BPLM bioactive compounds protecting muscle proteins from excessive denaturation (Shekoohi et al., 2024). This observation is consistent with the report of Udedibie et al. (2018), who noted no significant impact on cooking loss in rabbits fed diets supplemented with Azadirachta indica leaf meal. On the other hand, Esonu et al. (2019) found that Ocimum gratissimum leaf meal significantly reduced cooking loss, possibly due to stronger antioxidant activity stabilizing meat cell structures. Likewise, the result in the present study aligns with the findings of Orlowski et al. (2018), where phytogenic feed additives improved meat texture and moisture retention without significantly affecting cooking loss. Overall, the inclusion of BPLM up to 2 % in the diets of grower rabbits did not significantly affect WHC or cooking loss. The slight improvements observed at 1.5 % inclusion suggest some potential benefit, though further studies incorporating higher antioxidant phytogenics or synergistic leaf combinations may be warranted to optimize meat quality.

CONCLUSION

The findings from this study highlight the potential of Bryophyllum pinnatum leaf meal (BPLM) as a viable phytogenic feed additive in rabbit nutrition. Its proximate composition, particularly the high nitrogen-free extract and moderate fiber content, suggests its suitability as an energy-dense supplement with potential digestive benefits. Dietary inclusion of BPLM at 1.0 – 1.5% improved growth performance, enhanced carcass yield, and maintained organ weight indices without observable adverse effects. Although liver weight increased at higher inclusion levels, this may reflect a physiological response to increased phytochemical metabolism. Meat quality indicators, including pH, water-holding capacity, and cooking loss, remained within acceptable limits across treatments, suggesting that BPLM did not compromise meat acceptability. However, the absence of significant differences, especially in meat quality traits, should be interpreted cautiously. The slight decline in WHC, though statistically non-significant, may have biological implications that merit further investigation.

Importantly, while the results are encouraging, the conclusion that BPLM is entirely “safe” should be considered preliminary. The study did not include histopathological assessments or long-term toxicity evaluations, which are essential for a full safety profile. Furthermore, limitations such as the small sample size, absence of gut microbiota analysis, and lack of sensory evaluation constrain the generalizability of these findings.

Future studies are recommended to assess BPLM’s long-term safety, effects on intestinal microbiota, histological changes, oxidative stability of meat, and sensory qualities. Such data would provide a more comprehensive understanding of its role as a sustainable, functional feed additive in rabbit production.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The authors sincerely appreciate the management of Landmark University, Omu Aran, Kwara State, Nigeria, for granting access to its facilities, including the Teaching and Research Farm and the Laboratory, for the successful conduct of this study. The institution’s unwavering support and commitment to research excellence have been invaluable to this work.

NOVELTY STATEMENT

This study is novel in its evaluation of Bryophyllum pinnatum leaf meal as a phytogenic feed additive for weaned rabbits, demonstrating its potential as a natural growth promoter that enhances performance, carcass traits, and meat quality without adverse effects. The findings provide new insights into the optimal inclusion level (1.5%), revealing its role in improving gut health, nutrient utilization, and metabolic efficiency, making it a viable alternative to synthetic growth enhancers in rabbit production.

AUTHOR’S CONTRIBUTION

All authors contributed to the research conduct, writing process, and data analysis.

Generative AI or AI-assisted Technology Statement

The author(s) declare that no Genrative AI was used in the creation of this manuscript.

Conflict of interest

The authors have declared no conflict of interest.

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