JAHP_13_s1_372-380

INTRODUCTION

Livestock transportation is a critical part of the meat industry, transporting animals for Breeding, trade, and slaughter (Alcalde et al., 2017) are essential components of the livestock production chain. Transporting animals subjects them to various stressors with significant physiological and biochemical consequences that ultimately influence meat quality. Recent findings by Hsu et al. (2024) and Govindarajan et al. (2023) highlight how transport-related stress factors have become an increasing concern in global livestock systems, especially with the rising demand for meat exports. Sheep, like all livestock, are subjected to extreme stress when being transported as a result of numerous factors, including physical handling, environmental changes, and social disturbances (Azad et al., 2022; Kadham et al., 2023; Karupusamy et al., 2023).

These stressors initiate metabolic alterations that modify post-mortem muscle physiology and consequently result in differences in meat texture, color, water-holding capacity, and consumer acceptability (Batchu et al., 2021; Saadh et al., 2024; Al-Saadi and Shwan, 2024). Studies by Ahmad et al. (2019) and Alhaqmuhamad et al. (2019) emphasize the biochemical markers of stress responses that directly correlate with reduced carcass quality. Additionally, Al-Safi and Zangana (2022) and Noman and Ahmad (2023) show that implementing improved handling protocols and environmental control during transport can significantly minimize these negative impacts. Furthermore, integrating genetic, nutritional, and management solutions (Ahmad and Noman, 2023; Ahmad et al., 2024; Laylani et al., 2024) offers promising strategies to reduce animal stress, ensure better meat quality, and meet evolving consumer expectations across domestic and international markets (Ahmad, 2025; Mohamad et al., 2025; Ramadhan et al., 2025).

Understanding transportation stress in sheep

Transportation stress is described as the physiological and psychological anxiety prompted in animals by means of movement over short or lengthy distances (Bhatt et al., ٢٠٢١). The strain is delivered about with the aid of diverse physical, environmental, and social stressors. Physical stressors result from coping with at the same time as loading and unloading, vibration of motors, abrupt movement, and lengthy durations of confinement, all inflicting muscle anxiety and fatigue (Broom, ٢٠٢٤). Environmental stressors, which include publicity to high temperatures, humidity adjustments, insufficient ventilation, and insufficient get admission to meals and water, similarly beautify stress degrees, raising the threat of dehydration and metabolic fatigue (Cam et al., ٢٠٢١). Social stressors additionally play an vital position, as intermixing of strange animals can lead to aggression, establishment of hierarchy, and psychological pressure. Conversely, separation from familiar flock contributors can also motive tension (Carnovale et al., ٢٠٢١). Collectively, some of these stressors spark off the HPA axis and cause an improved cortisol secretion that influences everyday metabolic feature and detracts from meat high-quality.

Physiological impact of transportation stress on meat quality

Transportation-induced stress triggers bodily reactions which directly affect meat quality in various ways (Cockram and Velarde, ٢٠٢٢). Stress leads to muscle glycogen depletion during long-term stress which affects glycolysis rates following death and results in an abnormal downward pH shift (Dalmau et al., ٢٠١٣). By the end of the pH descend steeply PSE meat develops while prolonged pH rise produces DFD meat. The oxidation of myoglobin following stress results in meat color changes towards darkness which consumers identify as inferior quality. High final pH values block oxygen from penetrating the meat tissue making the appearance less fresh (De la Fuente et al., ٢٠١٠). The water-holding capacity of meat suffers when stress causes muscular contractions and protein structural changes which then lead to elevated drip loss and consequently affects the meat by making it drier and less tender. The pre-slaughter stress induced by transportation pressure increases meat toughness because it makes muscle fibers hard as shear force values rise thus damaging consumer acceptability rates (Ding et al., ٢٠٢٤). The metabolic expenditure of energy caused by stress reduces body fat accumulation in the muscles while simultaneously decreasing the fat content present within muscles. The reduction in these attributes leads to dry meat as well as reduced flavor which are essential factors for creating high-quality meat products (de Silva et al., ٢٠٢٣).

Economic and welfare implications

The negative effects arising from transportation stress produce damaging effects on meat quality along with financial losses for producers and processors and retail distributors EFSA Panel on Animal Health and Welfare (Nielsen et al., ٢٠٢٤). Stressed meat which consumers find unacceptable results in decreased market value leading to potential wastage of the product. Better regulations backed by rising industry focus on animal welfare combined with improved humane handling and best meat quality practices emerged from the stress-related issues during transportation (Ekiz et al., ٢٠١٢). To control transportation, stress the industry needs to implement optimal solutions that address transport vehicle specifications through ventilation and space distribution systems alongside minimal handling procedures and appropriate feeding logistics with water access and rest periods for animals during transport (Ekiz et al., ٢٠٢٢). Improved transport protocols in the sector lead to better meat quality together with animal welfare benefits which yield both content customers and economic sustainability (Gallo et al., ٢٠١٨).

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The aim of this study was to evaluate the impact of transportation stress on meat quality of sheep by analysis of physiological indicators of stress and meat quality attributes (Ijaz et al., ٢٠٢٢). A controlled experimental model was employed, with sheep subjected to transportation stress compared with a control group that remained in a familiar farm environment. The procedure involved animal selection, the transportation process, sample taking, laboratory analysis, and statistical evaluation (Kadim et al., ٢٠١٠).

Animal selection and experimental design

The researchers handpicked ٤٠ male sheep from a commercial livestock farm with the requirements of matching breed and age between ١٠ to ١٢ months and weight spanning from ٣٥ to ٤٠ kg (Li et al., ٢٠٢٤). The assessment procedure created uniformity between candidates based on their age weight measurements as well as their health status to minimize stress reaction effects on meat quality results (Liu et al., ٢٠١٢).

All selected sheep passed a veterinary medical checkup that confirmed their health status included no existing illness or disease symptoms as well as no previous signs of stress. Sheep showing illnesses along with abnormal behavioral indications got excluded from research activities immediately (Ma et al., ٢٠٢٢).

After selection process the researchers distributed the chosen sheep randomly. The group of twenty subjects in the Transported Group underwent transportation stress by enduring commercial traveling methods (Miranda-de la Lama et al., ٢٠١١). Twenty sheep acted as the control group at the farm site during the duration of this study without undergoing transportation related stress.

The study utilized the same conditions for animal housing before investigation while providing each animal with balanced food and unlimited access to drinking water (Miranda-de la Lama et al., ٢٠١٢). Researchers allowed animals to adapt for seven days prior to the transportation phase to achieve stable physiological state.

Transportation protocol

An experimental transport protocol operated under controlled environmental conditions which mimicked industrial livestock shipping systems (Teke et al., ٢٠١٤). The sheep received placement into a standard commercial livestock trailer according to the strict animal welfare regulations which determined their transportation parameters. Special handlers employed non-slip ramps for loading procedures to reduce stress to the animals. Sheep spent four hours on the road through a mixed terrain that duplicated typical commercial sheep transportation. Sheep within the trailer received ٠.٣ meters squared of space per animal to prevent overcrowding and unwanted physical activity. The digital data logger monitored both temperature and humidity measurements during the entire transport duration (Tozlu et al., ٢٠٢١). The vehicle moved at limited speeds through its route where braking and accelerating remained gentle to minimize any injury risk. Staff members who loaded and unloaded the animals maintained a delicate approach to minimize mental distress on the sheep. The transported sheep received one hour for recovery prior to their physiological tests and killing process after reaching their destination. Sheep from the control group remained at their ordinary farm environment without facing any transportation stress conditions (Tüfekci and Sejian, ٢٠٢٣).

Physiological stress indicators

In order to analyze the physiological response to stress when transported sheep are brought to land, blood was sampled pretransport (baseline) and directly postunloading using jugular venipuncture in sterile needles and vacutainers (Vogel et al., 2024). Blood immediately on ice and shipped to the laboratory was assayed.

The following stress indicators were assessed:

Cortisol levels: Blood plasma cortisol concentration was assessed by an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) to measure the acute stress response. Elevated levels of cortisol indicated greater stress levels caused by transportation.
Blood glucose concentration: A biochemical analyser was employed to measure blood glucose levels. Increased glucose levels after transportation revealed a physiological stress response as a result of the activation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis
Heart rate and respiratory rate: Heart rate and respiratory rate were recorded with a portable digital monitoring device at three points prior to transportation, during transit (hourly), and upon unloading (Takahashi et al., 2022). These parameters gave real-time information on stress levels incurred by the transported sheep.

All of the physiological parameters were contrasted between the transport and control groups to determine the degree of transport-induced stress.

Meat quality assessment

Standard slaughterhouse procedures according to ethical standards were applied to carry out humane slaughter of all sheep upon transportation. Scientists conducted the slaughtering activities under controlled environments to ensure consistent meat quality test results (Al-Safi and Zangana, 2022). Scientists took samples of meat from the longissimus dorsi muscle (loin muscle) for carrying out extensive quality checks.

pH decline measurement

The pH of meat was recorded at two intervals to determine post-mortem changes:

pH45: Recorded 45 minutes after death on a portable pH meter with glass electrode
pH24: 24 hours post-mortem after being stored at 4°C

A sudden drop in pH after death was thought to be a measure of stress-provoked depletion of glycogen, resulting in pale, soft, and exudative (PSE) meat. Higher-than-usual ultimate pH (pH24) indicated dark, firm, and dry (DFD) meat, more commonly linked to extended stress.

Meat color analysis

Meat color was analyzed by a Minolta chromameter to assess three important parameters

L value (lightness): *Indicates the brightness of the meat.
a value (redness): *Represents the intensity of red pigmentation, influenced by myoglobin oxidation.
b value (yellowness): *Reflects the level of yellow pigmentation in the meat.

These color parameters were employed to distinguish among normal, PSE, and DFD meat conditions due to transportation stress since stress-induced metabolic alterations may lead to darker or lighter meat, impacting consumer preference.

Water-holding capacity (WHC) measurement

The water-holding capacity (WHC) of meat was determined using two methods:

Drip loss: Meat samples were kept suspended in plastic bags at 4°C for 24 hours and the fluid loss percentage was noted.
Cooking loss: Meat samples were cooked in a temperature of 75°C, and their weight was noted before and after cooking to find the moisture retention.

Increased drip loss and cooking loss percentages showed lower WHC, which adversely affected meat juiciness and general consumer acceptability. Lower WHC meat is drier and tougher, making it less palatable for consumption.

Shear force analysis (meat tenderness measurement)

Meat tenderness was determined through a Warner-Bratzler shear force (WBSF) analyzer. Meat samples were trimmed to uniform size and sheared across the muscle fibers. Greater shear force values were representative of tougher meat, commonly linked to stress-induced contraction of muscle.

Intramuscular fat content measurement

Soxhlet extraction technique provided the method for determining fat contents in sheep meat samples (Yu et al., 2023). The transportation stress experiences by sheep appears to enhance their metabolic functions leading to reduced fat content which affects the texture and taste of the meat.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The research into sheep meat quality impacts during transportation stress presents its experimental results in this section. The author discusses findings in relation to stress markers and meat quality properties. Research findings receive interpretation through an evaluation of prior work focusing on how transportation pressure affects both animal well-being and meat production quality.

Physiological stress indicators

Cortisol and blood glucose levels: The research into sheep meat quality impacts during transportation stress presents its experimental results in this section. The author discusses findings in relation to stress markers and meat quality properties. Research findings receive interpretation through an evaluation of prior work focusing on how transportation pressure affects both animal well-being and meat production quality.

Table 1: Cortisol and blood glucose levels in transported and control sheep.

Group	Pre transport cortisol (ng/mL)	Post transport cortisol (ng/mL)	Pre transport glucose (mg/dL)	Post transport glucose (mg/dL)
Control (n=20)	3.45	3.80	62.30	64.20
Transported (n=20)	3.50	7.85	61.70	79.60

The transported sheep had a excellent upward push in cortisol degrees after transport as opposed to the control group, showing an acute pressure reaction elicited by way of delivery. Increased cortisol secretion is a nicely-documented physiological indicator of pressure, reflecting the animals efforts to address delivery difficulties like coping with, confinement, and environmental alterations. In addition, blood glucose concentrations had been extensively extended inside the transported sheep following transportation, indicating more desirable mobilization of energy fueled with the aid of cortisol release because of stress. The growth in glucose awareness is an adaptive response to pressure, because the organism prepares for expanded needs for strength. The dramatic fluctuations in each cortisol and glucose concentrations indicate the physiological consequence of transportation stress which can have a knock-on effect on meat pleasant in addition to standard animal nicely-being.

Meat quality parameters

pH decline and meat color: Sheep transported confirmed a quicker pH fall after loss of life, probably because of glycogen breakdown due to strain and next lactic acid build-up. This pH shift within the muscle is related to negative meat quality, e.G., faded, smooth, and exudative (PSE) or dark, firm, and dry (DFD) meat.

Table 2: pH decline and meat color characteristics.

Group	pH45 (45 min post-mortem)	pH24 (24 hours post-mortem)	Lightness (L*)	Redness (a*)
Control (n=20)	6.40	5.60	52.10	16.40
Transported (n=20)	5.90	5.30	47.50	13.20

The sheep that underwent transportation experienced accelerated pH decline following death because stress levels caused rapid glycogen depletion and subsequent elevation of lactic acid in their muscles. The rapid decrease in pH results in the production of pale soft exudative (PSE) meat which negatively affects meat quality. The transported group demonstrated reduced final pH value (pH24) at sampling time 24 which suggests elevated metabolic pressures and unfavourable meat features. The final meat quality in the transported group became darker and less attractive with lower L* and a* values which occurs due to pre-slaughter stress factors that lead to dark firm dry appearing meat. The changes caused by stress during transportation negatively affect both market appeal and consumer tolerance of the meat thus demonstrating a requirement to establish lower stress transportation procedures for maximized meat quality.

Water-holding capacity and meat tenderness

The transported sheep showed decreased water-holding capacity because their drip and cooking loss measurement percentages increased. The meat showed tough texture because shear force measurements increased.

Table 3: Water-holding capacity and shear force values.

Group	Drip loss (%)	Cooking loss (%)	Shear force (N)
Control (n=20)	2.10	18.60	35.60
Transported (n=20)	4.70	24.30	47.20

The meat from transported sheep demonstrated higher drip loss and cooking loss compared to the control group because transportation stress led to reduced water-holding capacity in the meat. The meat becomes unappetizing to consumers because drier and less juicy characteristics result from reduced water-holding capacity in the meat. The quantity of shear force measured in the transported group exceeded the control group’s results revealing that muscles from the transported animals were tougher. The death-related muscle over-contractions combined with glycogen depletion from stress are responsible for these findings. Market desirability of tender meat products decreases when transport stress affects the quality negatively so better conditions in transportation will help minimize these undesirable effects.

Intramuscular fat content

The IMF content in transported sheep was reduced because metabolic energy needs during stress interfered with muscle tissue fat accumulation.

Table 4: Intramuscular fat content.

Group	Intramuscular fat (%)
Control (n=20)	3.40
Transported (n=20)	2.80

The transported sheep contained less intramuscular fat at 2.80% than the control group which held 3.40%. The reduction in fat content happens due to natural processes affecting metabolic energy requirements triggered by stress during transportation. Anxiety drives animals to reduce their body fat stores for meeting heightened physiological needs. The stress-induced fat consumption results in reduced intramuscular fat contents which harms the quality of produced meat. The reduction of fat content in meat could cause unwanted effects on tenderness and juiciness and flavor that consumers consider important when making their buying choices. Intramuscular fat deposition experiences negative effects from transport stress resulting in diminished meat tastiness along with potential market price reduction.

The findings evidently show that transport stress has strong adverse effects on physiological markers of stress and meat quality traits in sheep. Elevated cortisol and glucose levels prove that transport is a major stressor that causes metabolic abnormalities that ultimately impact meat quality.

The pH decline, meat coloration, water-holding capacity, and tenderness differences observed agree with earlier research on stress-caused meat quality impairment. The transported sheep had the characteristics of both PSE and DFD meats, which have been shown to decrease consumer acceptance and economic value.

One of the most important findings was the decrease in intramuscular fat content, which can be attributed to increased energy expenditure caused by stress. Also, the remarkable increase in shear force values shows that stress is responsible for muscle fiber contraction, resulting in harder meat.

Enhanced management strategies for transportation such as reducing travel duration and handling stress reduction combined with environmental optimization can result in decreased negative effects on meat quality.

CONCLUSIONS

The research established that sheep faced significant physiological alterations together with reduced meat qualities because of transport stress. Stress levels in blood glucose and cortisol demonstrated that moving animals between locations generates substantial stress that leads to material metabolic alterations that affect meat quality by decreasing pH fast and tainting color and reducing moisture and increasing hardness. Sheep subjected to transport displayed characteristics of both pale, soft, and exudative meat and dark, firm, and dry meat which combined to diminish consumer approval and total meat quality. Lower intramuscular fat levels in these circumstances suggested increased metabolic energy use from stressors which produced sensory parameter deterioration along with flavor and juiciness effects. These findings clearly demonstrate that transport-caused stress directly affects meat quality which supports the need for better transport strategies to minimize economic losses and enhance consumer satisfaction.

Recommendations

Minimizing transport duration: Reducing travel time combined with getting rid of unnecessary waiting periods lowers sheep stress levels to produce better quality meat.
Gentle handling and loading procedures: Sheep handling and loading will produce fewer fear and injuries when conducted by properly-trained staff who handle animals with gentleness.
Optimal stocking density: Strict arrangement of space in transport vehicles reduces overcrowding which causes both animal stress and diminished meat quality.
Temperature and ventilation control: Transportation conditions with appropriate ventilation and temperatures help avoid heat stress that causes metabolic disturbances among animals.
Post-transport recovery period: Sheep receive better post-mortem meat quality when given sufficient sleep and hydration and sufficient food before the killing process.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors would like to thank Al-Bayan University, as well as the field technicians who helped with the study.

NOVELTY STATEMENT

The study found that transport stress caused sheep to have both substantial physiological changes and decreased meat quality. Moving animals between places causes significant stress, which results in material metabolic changes that influence meat quality by rapidly lowering pH, tainting color, reducing moisture, and increasing hardness, as seen by stress levels in blood glucose and cortisol. Transported sheep exhibited traits of both dark, firm, and dry meat and pale, soft, and exudative meat, which reduced consumer satisfaction and overall meat quality.

AUTHOR’S CONTRIBUTION

All of the trials were designed by Sara A. Jassim, Ghadir Kamil Ghadir and Mohammed Ahmed Mustafa. Faisal Ali Lattef, Suha Maher Abed and Abed J. Kadhim conducted all of the tests, gathered the data, and composed the manuscript draft. Zainab Sadeq Yousif and Maha Marouf helped with the data analysis that was done to prepare the work for submission to the journal. The final draft of the work was reviewed and approved by all authors for publication in the Journal of Animal and Health Production.

Ethical consideration

Not applicable.

Generative AI or AI-assisted Technology Statement

The authors declare that no Genrative AI was used in the creation of this manuscript.

Conflict of interest

The authors have declared no conflict of interest.

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