PUJZ_40_2_157-168

Introduction

Maize, scientifically known as Zea mays L., is a life-sustaining grain that is sometimes referred to as the “Queen of Cereals” (Ngairangbam et al., 2024). This C4 plant, from the Poaceae family, is a worldwide species with the highest production levels of any cereal. It is a rapidly developing crop that now accounts for the majority of world grain trading. Maize has attracted global interest due to its high utilization rate, with around 83% of production used in animal feed, carbohydrate, starch, and biofuel industries. Maize is used for the following purposes worldwide: Food (17%), feed (61%), and industrial uses (22%). Maize output in 170 countries totals roughly 1,147.7 million metric tons, with 193.7 million hectares under cultivation (Nisar et al., 2024). The top maize producers include the United States, China, Brazil, Mexico, India, Indonesia, France, and Argentina. Maize is Pakistan’s third most important crop in terms of planted area. The Dietary Reference Index (DRI) for 100 grams of maize emphasizes its ability to provide needed calories, carbs, and protein, making it especially advantageous to women and children (Galani et al., 2022).

Maize is one of the most valued crops, ranking after rice and wheat in significance. It is an important source of nourishment for both people and animals, improves immunological function, and has the ability to treat major chronic illnesses, as shown in Figure 1. Maize grains include B complex vitamins, which are essential for good hair, skin, heart, and brain function. Maize decoction is also used to treat symptoms including vomiting, nausea, and bladder difficulties.

Figure 1 depicts how linoleic acid in Zea mays oil helps regulate blood pressure, normalize blood cholesterol levels, and prevent heart disease. Furthermore, maize oil contains antioxidants that help control oxidative stress and protect cells and tissues from harm (Trinidad et al., 2021). Maize is also high in vitamins A, C, and K, as well as beta-carotene and selenium, which are required for thyroid function and immunological health (Baudron et al., 2024). Figure 1, elaborates the multiple benefits of maize, source of alcohol and essential source of human diet as well as used as fodder for livestock. Bio fuel has been made through proper process by the application of catalyst which are used in the production of fuel. In the field of pharmacology maize attained more to cure urinary system, heart diseases and stomach complaints.

Microbial assaults on maize occur from the start of ear development to postharvest, reducing the nutritional profile of the grain, triggering the formation of toxins that are hazardous to both people and animals, and posing a substantial danger to food security. Pest and diseases have been found to cause worldwide crop losses ranging from 19.5% to 41.1% (Savary et al., 2019). In Ontario and the United States, the economic impact of maize production loss has been estimated to be $55.90 per hectare. Several fungal species, including Rhizoctonia, Fusarium, and Verticillium, cause serious harm to maize crops in the field. In addition, fungal infections that harm stored grains include Penicillium spp., Aspergillus spp., and Fusarium spp. The maize streak disease strain induces chlorotic banding and inhibits maize plant development, resulting in yield losses of 6% to 10% (Emeraghi et al., 2021). Furthermore, both mottle virus and maize dwarf mosaic virus can cause deadly necrosis disease, with severe infestations causing in yield losses of up to 90%.

Lethal necrosis disease cost Kenya an estimated $45 million in 2012 (Biswalaa et al., 2022). Goss’s wilt is a bacterial disease that affects all varieties of maize. Although these microbial diseases are difficult to control, proper management is critical for long-term maize productivity and food security (Soliman et al., 2018). Microbial disease control in maize is very difficult for farmers because pathogens can attack at many phases of corn growth, and there are no good monitoring tools to identify microbial infestations (Lindsey et al., 2020). Implementing efficient disease management measures is essential since maize is a significant staple cereal. Crop rotation is a traditional practice that can enhance resistance to microbial diseases, and it continues to be utilized today. However, many farmers primarily rely on chemical applications, such as fungicides, pesticides, and bactericides, to maximize yield (Dinesh et al., 2022). The continuous use of these chemicals can harm beneficial microbiota that promote plant growth and lead to the bioaccumulation of toxic substances in the grain. Additionally, pathogens may develop resistance to these chemical treatments over time (Wu et al., 2020).

Alternative approaches for managing microbial diseases in maize include the use of bio pesticides and the manipulation of phytomicrobiomes. The phytomicrobiome plays a crucial role in enhancing soil health, promoting plant growth and development, and combating microbial diseases. It achieves this by signaling to the roots, altering community structures, and directly secreting compounds that inhibit pathogens (Kumar and Murali, 2023). Biological control methods are reliable tools for managing microbial diseases effectively. Additionally, genetic engineering techniques have led to the development of disease-resistant varieties, which have obtained global attention. These disease-resistant varieties possess the potential to compete effectively with pathogens and promise high yield production. It is urgent to identify and implement accurate solutions to mitigate these diseases. Integrated disease management (IDM) is a comprehensive approach that incorporates various strategies for disease control, based on physical, biological, and chemical principles. This article explores key strategies for mitigating disease in maize.

Most vulnerable diseases of Maize

Fungal disease

Table 1: Different fungal diseases.

S.	Disease	Fungal strain	Mainly affected part	Refernces
1	Corn smut	Ustilago maydis	All parts	Aydogdu and Boyraz (2011)
2	Fusarium ear rot	Fusarium verticillioides	Ear	Deshapande et al. (2019)
3	Eyespot	Aureobasidiunzeae	Leaf	Kumar et al. (2024)
4	Northern corn leaf blight	Exserohilum turcicum	Leaves	Anderson et al. (2024)
5	Common corn rust	Puccinia sorghi	Leaves	Holan et al. (2024)
6	Anthracnose stalk rot	Colletotrichum graminicola	Stalk and leaves	Kleczewski et al. (2014)
7	Kernel rot	Aspergillus flavus	Ear	Mukanga et al. (2010)
8	Southern corn leaf blight	Bipolaris maydis	Leaves	Bruns et al. (2017)
9	Crazy top downy mildew	Sclerophthora macrospora	Stalk	Frederiksen and Renfro (1977)
10	Charcoal ear rot	Macrophomina phaseolina	Seedling, leaves and stem	Mueller et al. (2016)
11	Corn grey leaf spot	Cercospora zeae-maydis	Root,leaves and stem	Dhau et al. (2017)
12	Aspergillus ear	Aspergillus flavus	Ear	Mukanga et al. (2010)
13	Leaf blight	A. alternata	Leaves	Xu et al. (2022)
14	Wilt disease	F. oxysporum	Leaves	Compas et al. (2019)
15	Stalk rot	Fusarium poae	Ear	Borowik et al. (2024)
16	Stalk rot	F. avenaceum	Leaves	Harish et al. (2024)
17	Leaf spot	Bipolaris sorokiniana	Leaves	Gubišová et al. (2024)
18	Grey leaf spot	Cercospora zeina	Leaves	Marais et al. (2024)
19	Laef blight	Bipolaris maydis	Leaves	Meshram et al. (2024)
20	Seedling mortality	Pythium ultimum Trow	Seed	Sharma et al. (2024)
21	Ear rot	Stenocarpella maydis (Berk.) Sutton,	Ear and leaves	Dorigan et al. (2024)
22	Foot rot disease	Gibberella fujikuroi (Sawada)	Leaves and stem	Kuar et al. (2024)
23	Ear rot	Fusarium moniliforme J.	Ear and leaves	Telichko et al. (2024)
24	Late wilt disease	Magnaporthiopsis maydis	Leaves	Degan et al. (2020)

Bacterial disease

Table 2: Bacterial diseases of maize.

S. No	Vulnerable disease	Bacterial starin	Mainly affected part	References
1	Seedling soft rot	Stenotrophomonas maltophilia	Seedling stunt and leaves	Heidar et al. (2024)
2	Stalk rot	Pseudomonas syringae pv. laps	Crown and root rot	Prokić et al. (2024)
3	Stalk	Enterobacter cloacae subsp. dissolvens	Post emergence die back	Kumar et al. (2024)
4	Stalk rot of maize	Erwinia chrysanthemi pv. zeae)	Leaf spot	Jatoth et al. (2024)
5	White spot disease	Pantoea ananatis	Leaves and ear	Obasa et al. (2024)
6	Bacterial leaf streak	Xanthomonas vasicola pv. Zeae	Leaves	Ahmed et al. (2024)
7	Goss’s wilt	Clavibacter nebraskensis	Leaves and stem	Soliman et al. (2018)
8	Bacterial leaf blight	Clavibacter nebraskensis	Leaf spot	Soliman et al. (2018)
9	Bacterial leaf spot	Xanthomonas compestris pv.holcicola	Leaves	Arias et al. (2020)
10	Bacterial stalk rot	Enterobacter dissolvens	Stalk nodes and leaf sheath	Hoffmann et al. (2024)
11	Bacterial strip	Pseudomonas andropogens	Bud ,stem and leaves	Mehl et al. (2023)
12	Top rot and stalk rot	Erwinia carotovora subsp. carotovora	Stem, bad and leaf sheath	Almasoud et al.,(2024)
13	Holcus spot	Pseudomonas syringae	Leaves	Heidari et al. (2024)
14	Purple leaf sheath	Hemiparasitic bacteria	Discoloration of leaves	Savov et al. (2024)
15	Corn stunt	Spiroplasma kunkelii	Ear and leaves	Haaset et al. (2024)
16	Stewart's disease	Erwinia stewartii	leaves	Mangel et al. (2024)
17	Leaf blight disease	Pantoea stewartii	Leaf sheath and ear	Farthing et al. (2024)
18	Bacterial streak disease	X. campestris pv. holcicola	Leaves and ear	Bathke et al. (2022)
19		Xanthomonas vasicola pv. vasculorum	Ear and leaf sheath	Plazas et al. (2018)
20	Leaf spot disease	Pantoea ananatis	Leaves sheath	Toaza et al. (2021)
21	Stalk rot	Burkholderia gladioli	Rooting of rot	Chiangkhaek et al. (2024)

Viral diseases

Table 3: Viral diseases of Maize.

S. No	Lethal disease	Virus	Mainly affected area	Refernces
1	Maize dwarf mosaic	Maize dwarf mosaic virus (MDMV)	Young leaves	Khanna et al. (2024)
2	Maize chlorotic mottle	Maize chlorotic mottle virus (MCMV)	Leaf sheath	Kiman et al. ( 2024)
3	Maize line	Maize line virus	Mid rib and leaves	Gentzel et al. (2024)
4	Cucumber mosaic	Cucumber mosaic virus (CMV)	Leaves and stem	Usanga et al. (2024)
5	Maize mosaic	Maize mosaic virus (MMV)	Midrib	Xavier et al. (2024)
6	Barley yellow dwarf	Barley yellow dwarf virus	Leaves	Khanna et al. (2024)
7	Johnsongrass mosaic	Johnsongrass mosaic virus	Ear and Leaves	Han et al. (2024)
8	Cereal chlorotic mottle	Cereal cholortic mottle virus	Leaf streak	Abraham et al. (2024)
9	Corn lethal necrosis	Maize cholorotic mottle virus	Yellowing of leaves	Gentze et al. (2024)
10	Maize streak	Maize streak virus (MSV)	Leaves and ear	Magdy et al. (2024)
11	Maize strip	Maize strip virus	Leaves	Abebe et al. (2024)
12	Maize white line mosaic	Maize white line mosaic virus	Leaves	Gentze et al. (2024)
13	Northern cereal mosaic	Northern cereal mosaic virus	Ear and leaves	Ohlson et al. (2024)
14	Rice stripe	Rice stripe virus	Leaf and midrib	Zhang et al. (2024)
15	Oat sterile dwarf	Oat sterile dwarf mosiac (OSDV)	Stem and leaves	Jones et al. (2024)
16	Oat pseudorosette	Oat pseudorosette virus	Leaf sheath	Kashyapet al. (2024)
17	Sugarcane mosaic of maize	Sugarcane mosaic virus (SCMV)	Leaves	Gao et al. (2024)

Principle to control infectious disease on maize

Phytomicrobiome

The phytomicrobiome can successfully manage maize diseases by directly secreting toxins that kill pathogens and indirectly stimulating the plant’s immune response. These techniques can help to achieve sustainable maize yield production. The diverse microbiota demonstrate a variety of pest control methods. For example, several bacteria release poisons that are fatal to pests when consumed. Rhizoctonia solani causes sheath blight disease in maize, resulting in considerable yield losses. However, Pseudomonas strains, notably AS21 and A19, have been reported to reduce mycelial growth by 54.55% and 57.5% in vitro, as well as 65.60% and 66.57% in cell culture. These strains can cause resistance and slow down the growth of other fungal infections (Sahgal et al., 2024). Furthermore, rhizosphere bacteria such as Enterobacter asburiae and Bacillus siamensis have been shown to limit the growth of fungi such as Alternaria alternata (26.20% inhibition) and Fusarium equiseti (20.63%) (Akanmu and Babalola, 2024). Fungi may bind to pathogens, infiltrate their tissues, and grow, releasing spores that then infect more cells and diseases. This cycle will continue until the crop is safeguarded. Figure 2 explain the intricate genes of the phytomicrobiome to regulate infectious diseases.

Trichoderma spp. are also helpful at controlling microbial illnesses because they create vital nutrients, lipids, minerals, and vitamins that help plants flourish. Aspergillus terreus and Penicillium citrinum produce organic acids, gibberellins, and siderophores in sunflowers, which effectively suppress the growth of pathogenic fungi like Fusarium graminearum, Valsa sordida, and Sphaeropsis sapinea (Ling et al., 2024).

Viruses may infiltrate pathogens’ bodies, hijack their metabolic machinery, reproduce, and induce cell lysis, ultimately killing the pathogen. Figure 2 illustrates how mycoviruses, such as DNA virus 1 (SsHADV-1) and (+) ssRNA, can suppress fungal infections. Mycoviruses have been shown to efficiently control diseases such as Puccinia striiformis, Magnaporthe oryzae, and Sclerotinia sclerotiorum (Contreras et al., 2024). The phytomicrobiome also improves plant immunity by stimulating the generation of secondary metabolites and improving overall development (Gwa and Ekefan, 2024). The LYSA gene controls hydrolytic enzyme synthesis, which damages infectious agent cell membranes and degrades cellular organelle membranes (Grabowski et al., 2021). The PLY gene creates lytic enzymes that change the structure of pathogens, reducing their potential to cause illness. These genes may be put into plants via genetic engineering to improve immunity to numerous diseases (Ma et al., 2024). SLE genes produce antibodies, inflammatory mediators, and immune cells, stimulating the immune system and inhibiting pathogen development. The CHAP gene is helpful in controlling bacterial illnesses because it encodes lysins that can target and destroy specific bacterial strains. While lysins are utilized outside of agriculture to prevent dangerous bacteria, their short shelf life remains a major problem (Samuel et al., 2024). Biotechnologists are attempting to extend the shelf life and potency of these chemicals. The ADH1 and ADH2 genes encode enzymes that detoxify hazardous compounds and are used in the synthesis of bio insecticides. These enzymes produce poisons that kill infections, demanding careful management to protect crops and beneficial bacteria (Wang et al., 2024). The TPS1 and TPS2 genes create volatile organic chemicals that resist infectious pathogens (Ribeiro et al., 2024). Pests face resource competition, and vector-borne illnesses can reduce yields significantly, frequently resulting in crop loss. However, using beneficial bacteria can help manage these fatal conditions. Emerging genetic engineering approaches seek to manipulate beneficial bacteria to improve pest control effectiveness. Figure 2 shows how synthetic biology might enhance disease management. This strategy includes inserting resistance genes into helpful microbes, allowing them to combat pests while still stimulating plant development (Saeed et al., 2024). Despite the benefits of biopesticides, local farmers are generally unaware of their use, and these products are not widely available on the market. Furthermore, the limited shelf life of bio-based insecticides creates issues. Researchers are continually attempting to increase the shelf life of these items. There is an urgent need to promote the use of biopesticides through awareness campaigns and assure their availability on the market. The phytomicrobiome is critical to sustained maize production and food security. Figure 2 demonstrates use of phytomicrobiome enhance immunity of maize to cope with different diseases. Microbial gene activation activates Bacillus thuringiensis toxin gene that produce antibiotics cry1 and cry2 to kill pathogen. Hydrolytic enzyme gene produces hydrolytic enzyme that directly kill disease causing microorganism. Volatile organic compound and siderophore retard pathogen growth.

Disease resistant varieties

Gene editing methods offer the potential to generate maize variants that are resistant to microbial diseases. Mega nucleases, TALENs (Transcription Activator-Like Effector Nucleases), ZFNs (Zinc Finger Nucleases), CRISPR/Cas9, CRISPR/Cas13, walk-like kinases (WAKLs), and cell wall-associated kinases (WAKs) are receptor-like kinases (RLKs) that can be used to develop resistance against fungal diseases, as illustrated in Figure 3. The ZmWAK gene was inserted into maize to reduce Sporisorium reilianum hyphal development, whereas ZmWAK-RLK1 improves immunity to corn leaf blight. WAK genes have an important role in microbial disease management, with ZmMM1 and ZmCCoAOMT2 shown to be beneficial against gray leaf spot disease in maize (Zhong et al., 2024).

Genetic breeding is an environmentally beneficial and sustainable method of maize production since it produces disease-resistant varieties that include both resistance and desirable features. The pedigree methodology may be used to develop pathogen-resistant cultivars, but the backcross method assures that these characteristics are successfully introduced. For example, the cotton rust gene has been transmitted from Gossypium arboreum and Gossypium anomalum to Gossypium hirsutum. Mutation breeding can also generate resistant lines by inducing mutations in seeds with alpha, beta, and X-rays. This approach activates genes that protect against certain diseases, such as Brassica campestris. However, mutant breeding is frequently less cost-effective and time-consuming than genome editing. The variety of bacterial pathogens makes bacterial illness treatment difficult. S genes are important in resolving this complexity since they target bacterial illnesses and can be introduced into plant species by genome editing (Zaidi et al., 2018). For example, Xanthomonas oryzae pv. oryzae causes bacterial blight in rice, resulting in yield losses ranging from 10% to 20%. TALE (Transcription Activator-Like Effector) proteins can signal S genes and increase their expression to help regulate such disorders. Fungal infections also cause large losses in maize production, which can be mitigated by incorporating R genes into maize types by genome editing (Chen et al., 2024). Powdery mildew is a serious fungal disease that affects postharvest maize. It can be controlled by adding R genes. The discovery of the milo gene has opened the door to generating disease-resistant crops, such as wheat allohexaploids, using CRISPR and TALEN editing, as seen in Figure 3. Furthermore, DNA viruses, including geminiviruses, include roughly 360 species that cause serious plant diseases. Artificial zinc finger proteins, in the absence of nucleases, can target viral replication origins and block replication proteins. ZFNs have been engineered to inhibit the replication genes of the tobacco curled shoot virus and the tomato yellow leaf curl China virus. Both CRISPR and ZFNs are potential techniques for controlling microbial illnesses in maize (Yin et al., 2024). MON810 maize varieties offer resistance against insect (Otim et al., 2022). DK777 and DK 90-98 maize varieties provide sufficient resistance against viral diseases i.e. MLND. Figure c explores the mechanism for developing resistance in maize against pathogens through inserting CRISPER case 9 technology. EMS, X ray, alpha and beta rays are used for inducing resistance through R, S, Avr and walk protein interaction in maize. S gene, walk gene, R gene and Avr gene can be proved a better tool for making maize resistance varieties against pathogen.

Crop rotation

Crop rotation is an effective technique for treating microbial illnesses because it changes the forms and functions of microbial communities in the rhizosphere. For example, rotating tobacco fields with maize can have a detrimental influence on the bacterium Ralstonia solanacearum, which causes tobacco bacterial wilt. Research has demonstrated that alternating tobacco with maize improves nutrient enrichment and boosts the variety of beneficial microorganisms. Tobacco –maize crop rotation enhances availability of potassium, nitrogen and phosphorus (Ma et al., 2024). This rotation disturbs plant pathogens’ life cycles and boosts microbial diversity, resulting in competition between pathogens and harmful bacteria, reducing pest survival rates.

Crop rotation increases microbial diversity significantly, since these microorganisms release gibberellins, secondary metabolites, and siderophores that can promote immunity in maize crops (Ma et al., 2024). Maize-soybean rotation, for example, improves soil nutrients and increases microbial diversity, making it important for disease control. Soybean and maize intercropping predominately fix nitrogen in the soil and reduce pressure of pest attack (Xu et al. 2020). Similarly, wheat-maize rotation contributes to increased organic content in the soil, supports beneficial microbiota, and adds secondary metabolites to the field, which can help mitigate microbial diseases in maize, as illustrated in Figure 4. Wheat-maize crop rotation primarily improves organic content and availability of nutrients nitrogen, phosphorous and potassium amplified (Yang et al. 2024). Other crop rotations, such as Zea mays L. with Brassica rapa, maize with Saccharum officinarum L., maize with Solanum tuberosum, and maize with Arachis hypogaea, have also been shown to enhance microbial diversity in the rhizosphere and effectively manage microbial diseases in maize (Li et al., 2021). Figure 4 focus on traditional method for managing harmful pathogens through replacing beneficial microbes by crop rotation strategy. Solanum tuberosum crop enhance potassium and phosphorus content in the soil and disrupt the pathogenic life cycle. Archais hypogea, Glycine max, Nicotina taacum, Brassica rapa and Sccharum officinale crops build up the community of beneficial microorganism.

Nanotechnology

Nanotechnology is a contemporary method that manipulates particles on the nanoscale, which generally ranges from 1 to 100 nm. This technique has several uses in medical treatment, the food business, medicines, biological research, and environmental science. In agriculture, nanotechnology can be used to manage microbial infections and insect infestations, both of which pose considerable hazards to maize productivity.
Fungal infections, in particular, can cause significant losses in maize output. Nanocomposites made from plants, bacteria, fungus, or chemicals are being researched to treat certain ailments. These nanocomposites adhere to fungal cell walls, forming holes that enable access, weakening the cell wall, penetrating the cell membrane, and eventually entering the cytoplasm. Once inside, they assault mitochondria, attach to respiratory enzymes, and prevent ATP synthesis, as shown in Figure 5. Furthermore, these nanoparticles can reach the nucleus via nuclear pores and damage DNA by forming bonds with sulfur and phosphorus, limiting mRNA production and blocking the active sites of respiratory enzymes. This chain reaction eventually kills the virus. Silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) derived from Rhazya stricta are antifungal against the pathogen Alternaria alternata (Al-Sahli et al., 2024). Selenium nanoparticles also have antifungal properties, preventing mold and gray mold infections in strawberries. Silver and selenium nanocomposites in varying concentrations can be used to treat fungal infections such as Fusarium moniliforme, Alternaria padwickii, Cephalosporium acremonium, Botrytis cinerea, Alternaria linicola, and Fusarium semitectum (Hamouda et al., 2024).

Metal oxide nanoparticles can produce free radicals within bacterial cells, causing the formation of reactive oxygen species and inhibiting ATP generation, ultimately resulting in bacterial cell demise, as shown in Figure E. Nickel oxide, zinc oxide, and silver oxide nanoparticles have been demonstrated to treat bacterial infections caused by Pantoea ananatis, Dickeya zeae, and Xanthomonas vasicola pv. vasculorum (Mamede et al., 2024). Magnesium oxide nanoparticles (MgONPs) can help plants survive both abiotic and biotic stressors. MgONPs have antibacterial characteristics that prevent pathogen colonization and proliferation by disrupting bacterial morphology and physiological activities. They can also improve plant resilience by modulating antioxidants, secondary metabolites, and hormones (Ali et al., 2024).

Gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) have antiviral properties, notably against the maize chlorotic mottle virus (MCMV), which can result in severe maize production losses. Severe infections can result in crop destruction, particularly when MCMV co-infects with other viruses like the Johnson grass mosaic virus, maize dwarf mosaic virus (MDMV), sugarcane mosaic virus (SCMV), and wheat streak mosaic virus, causing severe necrosis and posing a threat to the global maize industry. Silver nanoparticles can effectively control MCMV by preventing the replication origin and suppressing protein synthesis (Zhong et al., 2024). Furthermore, silver nanoparticles have been proven to suppress the tobacco mosaic virus, consequently improving cereal crop output (Ahsan et al., 2023). The use of nanotechnology provides an environmentally benign and promising strategy to controlling microbiological infections in maize, contributing to sustainable agricultural output. Figure 5 elaborates the mechanism of nanotechnology to mitigate the pathogens and enhance the production of maize. Nanoparticles enter in the body of pathogen and affected the cellular organelles, inhibit mitochondria respiratory enzymes and ATP synthesis, react with lysosomes and produce free radicles that lead to oxidative stress and pathogen died.

Conclusions and Recommendations

The techniques described above will be used to successfully manage microbial infectious illnesses in maize. Introducing disease-resistant genes into maize and generating new varieties, as well as monitoring genomic sequences, can help identify genes that play important roles in resistance to both minor and serious illnesses. Using synthetic biology techniques, we will encourage the inclusion of R and WAK genes into maize. Furthermore, the phytomicrobiome should be changed to improve its capacity to combat diseases, and more study is needed to understand the complicated processes by which bacteria act as biocontrol agents. Given the immense diversity of microbiota, determining the precise mechanisms of action can be difficult; however, advances in proteomics and bioinformatics may give useful information. Sequencing the genomes of the most susceptible maize diseases is critical for developing effective management measures. In the future, the phytomicrobiome is predicted to be a strong tool for disease prevention and large-scale production. Crop rotation, albeit a classic strategy, is still a viable and cost-effective option for farmers in developing nations. This approach can improve soil fertility, enrich nutrients, reduce diseases, and boost production. Nanotechnology, as an emerging area, has great potential for combating infectious illnesses. Green-synthesized, fungal, or chemical-based nanoparticles can elicit immunity against biotic and abiotic stressors by stimulating the generation of secondary metabolites and controlling plant development, therefore improving disease resistance and increasing output. Managing infectious diseases in maize is a significant problem that requires joint research efforts from microbiologists, pathologists, geneticists, biotechnologists, horticulturists, and nanotechnologists. Such multidisciplinary dynamics will be critical for developing effective ways to reduce microbial infections in maize while increasing overall yield output.

Declarations

Acknowledgement

Author express the gratitude and recognize the contributions, guidance and support of all co-authors.

Funding

The authors declare that no external funding was received for this work.

IRB approval

Ethical approval does not apply.

Ethical approval

Ethical approval does not apply.

Declaration of generative AI and AI-assisted technologies in the writing process

No Generative AI and AI-assisted technologies wer used in the writing process.

Statement of conflict of interest

The authors have declared no conflict of interest.

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