JPHEE_01_1

Introduction

Plants serve as fundamental natural resources that maintain life on Earth. The majority of developing country residents depend on herbal medicine for healthcare (Khan et al., 2015), while industrialized nations use it for half of their healthcare needs. The majority of Pakistan’s population, exceeding 80% uses herbal remedies for their health needs (Kaniguram, 2021). The majority of traditional ethnobotanical knowledge preservation now exists in rural and remote regions (Qaseem et al., 219). The increasing number of modern healthcare facilities, together with shifting lifestyles, endanger the survival of traditional ethnobotanical knowledge, according to Aziz et al. (2021). The ethnomedicinal uses of traditional plants remain documented for only 600 species among the 6,000 higher plant species found in Pakistan (Kaniguram, 2021). The documentation and conservation of traditional plant knowledge requires immediate attention because modernization and environmental degradation threaten to erase this knowledge (Irshad et al., 2025).

In Pakistan, most research on medicinal plants is still in the early stages. Most studies focus on documenting ethnobotanical knowledge instead of performing detailed pharmacological or biochemical analyses (Abbas et al., 2020). This research mainly takes place at universities and academic institutions, often as ethnobotanical inventories of local plant resources (Irshad et al., 2025; Abbas et al., 2020). Indigenous communities in various regions of Pakistan have traditional knowledge about the medicinal uses of native plants that dates back centuries (Heinrich et al., 1998). This valuable knowledge has been passed down orally from generation to generation through long-term interaction with local flora (Mudrikah et al., 2015). However, without formal preservation and scientific validation, this cultural and medicinal heritage risks being lost due to modernization and changing societal practices (Ullah et al., 2025b).

These plants are used to treat various diseases, including stomachaches, headaches, and wounds (Amiri et al., 2013). The traditional knowledge of medicinal plants, held by local communities and passed down orally through generations, is quickly fading away because of changes in cultural practices (Ullah et al., 2025a). Locals in areas where these plants grow use about 90% of the medicinal species (Shil et al., 2014). While traditional knowledge of plant-based remedies is still available, it risks being lost due to rapid changes in culture and society (Yineger et al., 2007). Many people prefer these natural medicines because they have fewer side effects, and herbs are easy to find in local environments. In Pakistan, the Unani system of medicine is the most common, although people in remote and rural areas still use many ethnomedicinal plants (Real and Vargas, 1996). Several countries, like China, Cuba, India, Sri Lanka, and Thailand, have officially included traditional medical systems in their national healthcare systems (Ahmad et al., 2016; Ullah et al., 2018g). For example, India’s medical systems, Ayurveda, Siddha, and Unani, along with homeopathy to some extent, heavily rely on plant-based materials and their derivatives to treat human illnesses (Amjad et al., 2020). Worldwide, it is estimated that around 12.5% of the 422,000 documented plant species have medicinal value. The percentage of medicinal plants among all documented flora varies widely between countries, ranging from 4.4% to 20% (Bibi et al., 2014).

About 25% of drugs in modern pharmacopoeia come from plants, while the rest are synthetic versions based on compounds isolated from plants (Dastagir et al., 2022; Ullah et al., 2023b). As much as 60% of the drugs prescribed in Eastern Europe consist of unmodified or slightly altered products from higher plants (Subhan et al., 2024). These plant-derived drugs have significant therapeutic properties, including contraceptives, steroids, and muscle relaxants, many of which are made from the wild yam (Dioscorea villosa) (Shakir et al., 2023). Quinine and artemisinin are well-known treatments for malaria, and digitalis derivatives are used to treat heart failure (Khan et al., 2024). Several powerful anti-cancer agents, like vinblastine, etoposide, and taxol, also come from medicinal plants. This shows how important phytochemicals are in modern pharmacotherapy (Sardar et al., 2021). These compounds cannot be produced cost-effectively through synthesis, so their production relies on a steady supply of plant material (Khan et al., 2018a, b). The global importance of medicinal plant materials is clear from the vast amount of trade at national and international levels (Khan et al., 2018b). During the 1990s, the annual international importation of medicinal plants for pharmaceutical use averaged 350,000 megatons, valued at over 1 billion USD (Amin et al., 2023). A few countries control international trade, handling more than 80% of global imports and exports. China and India are the leading producers, while Japan and Korea are the main consumers of medicinal plants (Ali et al., 2023). It is estimated that around 2,500 species of medicinal plants are involved in international trade worldwide (Zareef et al. 2023).

The system of ethno-botanical medicine in Pakistan dates back to the Indus period. This connection is demonstrated by excavations at the University of Taxila and in ancient cities like Mohenjo-daro and Harappa. These findings demonstrate how important medicinal plants are to these societies way of life and religious beliefs. Ancient Greek knowledge served as the foundation for modern medicine. This Greek medicine, which was later influenced by the Arabs, was later adopted by the Romans. Before it reached contemporary Europe, the Arabs enhanced it with concepts from Chinese and Indian medicine. This knowledge was introduced to India by Muslim rulers, who combined it with indigenous Ayurvedic methods. Currently regarded as a component of Eastern traditional medicine, this combined approach is known as Unani medicine.

Around 2500 B.C., the Indian medical system known as Ayurveda began to take shape, and by 600 B.C., it had been documented. While Muslims in the subcontinent adhered to Unani as their traditional system, Ayurveda came to be associated with Hindu culture. Over time, Unani and Ayurveda improved and influenced each other. Unani medicine is Pakistan’s main traditional system. Nearly 50,000 Hakims run clinics in both rural and urban areas of the nation. They make use of raw medicinal plants. With roughly 2,000 plant species that have been used for medicinal purposes across many cultures and eras, Pakistan’s rich plant diversity is acknowledged by the Unani system. Only 400 to 600 of these species, nevertheless, have had their therapeutic qualities investigated scientifically.

Besides the official use of medicinal plants by Hakims, rural residents, especially the elderly, depend on their personal experiences and ancestral knowledge to treat common illnesses using readily available plants. The Unani system remains popular for several reasons: it is affordable, accessible, has fewer side effects, and is backed by deep-rooted cultural trust in traditional plant-based remedies. Approximately 80% of the population lives in rural areas where these plants are easy to find. The prices of allopathic drugs are too high for many, and the availability of allopathic drugstores is limited. Additionally, people are increasingly aware of the harmful effects of artificial products and are recognizing the benefits of a more natural lifestyle. This study aimed to document the medicinal plants used by local communities in the Ghahi region. It also focused on preserving traditional knowledge about their medicinal uses. Furthermore, it planned to evaluate the pressures faced by these plant resources due to human activity and assess the conservation status of key species, intending to guide sustainable management practices.

Materials and Methods

Study area description

This study focused on Tahsil Arrang, which is situated in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (KP), Pakistan’s Bajaur District. Bajaur District is located between latitudes 34° 47’ and 35° 50’ North and longitudes 71° 11’ and 71° 49’ East. It shares borders with Afghanistan to the northwest, Mohmand District to the south, Lower Dir to the east, and Swat District to the southeast (Abbasi et al., 2013). The district covers about 1,290 square kilometers and has an estimated population of 1.2 million, based on the latest census data (Shakir et al., 2023).

Tehsil arrang is an administrative subdivision of Bajaur. It includes several rural communities, many of which rely heavily on traditional knowledge for their health and livelihood (Sajid et al., 2023). The region features rugged terrain, scattered agricultural land, and settlements in the foothills (Ali et al., 2023).

The area’s climate is typically subtropical semi-arid, characterized by hot summers and cold winters. June and July are the hottest months, with average temperatures reaching up to 35°C and dropping to around 18°C at night (Ullah et al., 2023a; Abbasi et al., 2013). Winter begins in late November, making December through February the coldest period. During these months, temperatures can dip below 0°C, particularly in higher elevations (Aziz et al., 2018). Annual rainfall is moderate and unevenly distributed, with most precipitation occurring during the spring and monsoon seasons. The area lies within the subtropical dry mountainous eco-region and supports a variety of medicinal plants adapted to its climatic conditions (Adnan et al., 2014).

Data collection

Data for this study were collected from March 2021 to September 2022. Ethnomedicinal plant samples were gathered from various locations in Ghahi Valley, Bajaur District, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (KP), Pakistan (Sajid et al., 2023). We carried out field visits across different habitats and laid out transects at selected sites to check the conservation status of medicinal plant species (Malik et al., 2015). During these surveys, we also collected information through direct observation, plant collection, and discussions with local people (Khan et al., 2018c; Ullah et al., 2018h).

Materials

The study needed a Global Positioning System (GPS), rope, plant presser, field notebook, cutter, digital camera, digger, zippered plastic bags, newspaper, blotting paper, and pruner (Bibi et al., 2015).

Methodology

The Ghahi Valley comprises nine Union Councils (UCs), from which ethnomedicinal plants were proportionally collected based on the population size of each council (Ali et al., 2018).

Botanical dehydration and pressing

Between dry newspaper sheets, plant materials were positioned and compressed. Papers were changed regularly to avoid fungal growth and specimen damage. The samples were then securely placed in a plant presser till they were wholly dried (Hussain et al., 2023).

Plant-induced poisoning

The plant specimens were treated with an alcoholic solution of mercuric chloride (HgCl₂) to prevent fungal and insect infestations. This followed the method described by Ullah et al. (2024a).

Mounting of plant specimens

In the herbarium, the dehydrated, poisoned plants were placed. Their key parts were visible, including flowers, roots, fruits, and leaves. Each specimen was secured with glue applied with a brush, and it was labeled correctly on the herbarium sheet (Abbas et al., 2020).

plant identification

The expert taxonomists identified the ethnomedicinal plants with help from relevant literature, photographs, catalogues, color manuals, and floras. They used both macroscopic and microscopic characteristics (Liu et al., 2023). The Flora of Pakistan verified and corrected the botanical names, family names, and author citations. Voucher specimens were stored in the Herbarium of Hazara University, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan, for future reference (Abbas et al., 2020).

Questionnaire survey

Data came from various informants, including both males and females, through semi-structured questionnaires and formal interviews (Ullah et al., 2023a). The study included informants such as local residents, herbalists, and hunters with knowledge of medicinal plants. The research gathered 314 completed questionnaires from participants in the study area. The questionnaire asked about the specific plant parts used, recipe formulation methods, and other important ethnomedicinal information (Ullah et al., 2024b).

Data analysis

Microsoft Excel 2020 and Microsoft Word 2020 were used to organize the data. Details about plant habit, plant parts used, and administration routes were organized into separate categories. We performed data analysis with relevant statistical tools in Microsoft Excel to interpret the ethnobotanical patterns and trends. For correlation analysis, we used R Version 3.4.

The informant consensus factor (ICF)

The treatments for various illnesses were examined using the informant consensus factor (ICF). This helped assess how much agreement there was among informants and identify plant species that could be promising for further studies in pharmacology and phytochemistry (Adnan et al., 2014; Shakir et al., 2023). The ICF value was determined using the following formula:

ICF = Nur-N / (Nur-1)

where Nt is the total number of plant species used by all respondents to treat that disease category, and Nur is the number of plant use reports by respondents for a particular disease.

Fidelity level

The fidelity level (FL) helped identify the plant species that people preferred for treating certain ailments, based on what informants shared. Plants that were favored for specific diseases showed higher FL values than those used less often or for a wider range of conditions (Ullah et al., 2023c; Aziz et al., 2018).

FL= IP/ IU×100

Preference ranking

The Preference Ranking (PR) method assessed how scarce certain medicinal plant species are, based on a set standard. In this method, the most preferred species received the highest scores (Hamilton, 2003). The least preferred species got the lowest scores (Khan et al., 2018).

Conservation survey

Ecological data were assessed using the belt transect method described by Aziz et al. (2018). A total of 25 plots were selected, and each plot was divided into three subplots of different sizes to estimate the diversity and abundance of trees, shrubs, and herbs (Adnan et al., 2014). To determine the conservation status of medicinal plant species, researchers used the Rapid Vulnerability Assessment (RVA) technique (Hussain et al., 2023). The belt transect method was also used to evaluate the ethnomedicinal flora. This approach allowed researchers to calculate species density, frequency, and use value within the native habitats of the study area (Liu et al., 2023).

Results

Sociodemographic data and the respondents’ gender distribution

Data were gathered from 314 informants in the research area, with 291 males (93%) and 23 females (7%) (Figure 1). Data collected included participants’ age, sex, and educational level. Most of them were farmers, considering their strong connection with nature and their rich traditional knowledge about medicinal plants.

In the study area, among the 314 respondents, 26 individuals (8%) were aged between 20–34 years, 155 individuals (50%) were between 35–50 years, and 133 individuals (42%) were in the 50–60 years age group (Figures 1 and 2).

Respondent distribution according to educational attainment

Among the 314 respondents, 214 (67.5%) had no formal education. Fifty-two (16.5%) had primary education. Eighteen respondents (6%) had completed middle school. Thirteen (4%) were matric pass. Eight (2.5%) had intermediate-level education, and only eight respondents (2.5%) were graduates. This information is shown in Table 1 and Figure 3.

Table 1: Ghahi Valley’s socioeconomic and demographic characteristics.

No.	Educational level	Number of participants	Percentage
1	No formal schooling	214	67.5%
2	Completed grades 1–5	52	17.5%
3	Completed grades 6–8	18	19.3%
4	Completed secondary school (grades 9–10)	13	4.1%
5	Completed higher secondary school (grades 11–12)	8	2.6%
6	Bachelor’s degree or equivalent	8	2.4%
	Total	314

Herbs are the dominant growth form, with 57 species, which is 57%. This indicates that herbaceous plants are the most common in local ethnomedicinal practices. This pattern is typical in ethnobotanical studies because herbs are easier to find, simpler to gather, and often used fresh in traditional remedies. Trees make up the second-largest group, with 29 species, accounting for 29%. This shows that woody species are important too, likely because they are available long-term and have many uses, such as bark, resin, and wood. Shrubs represent the smallest group, with 14 species, or 14%. However, they still add to the overall variety and usefulness of plant resources in the area, as illustrated in Figure 4. This distribution emphasizes the need to preserve the diversity of herbaceous plants since they support traditional medicinal knowledge. The significant presence of trees suggests their value in providing reliable and long-lasting remedies. Altogether, the three growth forms show a balanced ecological and ethnobotanical reliance on plant biodiversity in the study area.

Ghahi valley’s traditional medicinal plant resources

In the study area, 89 species from 47 families were found, including 26 trees, 12 shrubs, and 51 herbs (see Table 2; Figure 4).

Table 2: Species of ethnomedicinal plants found in the Ghahi Valley.

Scientific name	Vernacular name	Growth form	Plant family
Abies pindrow (Royle ex D.Don) Royle	Belaanzi	T	Pinaceae
Acacia modesta Wall.	Palosaa	T	Mimosaceae
Acacia nilotica (L.) Delile	Kikaar	T	Mimosaceae
Adiantum venustum D. Don	Patosanraa	H	Pteredaceae
Ailanthus altissima (Mill.) Swingle	Shandaai	T	Simaroubaceae
Ajuga bracteosa Wall.ex Benth.	Guatti	H	Lamiaceae
Allium cepa L.	Peyaz	H	Alliaceae
Allium sativum L.	Ogaa	H	Alliaceae
Alnus nitida (Spach) Endl.	Geeraay	T	Betulaceae
Aristida adscensionis L.	Mashkanraa	H	Poaceae
Berberis lyceum Royle	Koraay	S	Berberidaceae
Bergenia ciliata (Haw.) Sternb.	Gut gulaay	H	Saxifragaceae
Bothriochloa ischaemum (L.) Keng	Sorsaary waakho	H	Poaceae
Calotropis procera (Aiton) Dryand.	Spalaamai	S	Asclepiadaceae
Caltha alba Cambess.	Dampaanra	H	Ranunculaceae
Cannabis sativa L.	Baang	H	Cannabaceae
Crotalaria calycina Schrank	Unknown	H	Leguminosae
Cedrus deodara (Roxb. Ex D. Don)	Naazlo	T	Pinaceae
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Scientific name	Vernacular name	Growth form	Plant family
Cheilanthes dalhousiae Hook.	Sheen Botay	H	Pteridaceae
Citrus sinensis (L.) Osbeck	Maltaa	T	Rutaceae
Clinopodium abyssinicum (Benth.)	Unknown	H	Lamiaceae
Convolvulus arvensis L.	Preewataay	H	Convolvulaceae
Erigeron canadensis L.	Maangoty	H	Asteraceae
Coriandrum sativum L.	Danyaa	H	Umbelliferae
Coronopus didymus L.	Sakhabotaay	H	Brassicaceae
Cydonia oblonga Mill.	Boyii	T	Rosaceae
Cynodon dactylon (L.)	Kabaal	H	Poaceae
Diospyros lotus L.	Amlooke	T	Ebenaceae
Dodonaea viscosa (L.)	Ghoraaskay	S	Sapindaceae
Dryopteris serratodentata Ha yata	Obo botay	H	Dryopteridaceae
Echinochloa crus-galli (L.)	sherghshay	H	Poaceae
Equisetum arvense L.	Bandakaay	H	Equisetaceae
Erigeron multicaulis wall.	Unknown	H	Asteraceae
Eriobotrya japonica (Thunb)	Lokaat	T	Rosaceae
Eucalyptus globules Labill.	Laachii	T	Myrtaceae
Ficus carica Linn.	Inzaar	T	Moraceae
Foeniculum vulgare Mill.	Kaagienaly	H	Umbelliferae
Fumaria indica (Hausskn.)	Shaataraa	H	Fumariaceae
Heteropogon contortus (L.)	Sormaal	H	Poaceae
Indigofera heterantha Brandi s	Ghoreejoo	S	Papilionaceae
Isodon rugosus (Wall. ex Bth.)	Kraachy	S	Lamiaceae
Launaea nudicaulis (L.) Hook.f.	Psrlaay botay	H	Asteraceae
Mallotus philippensis (Lam.)	Kaambeelaa	T	Euphorbiaceae
Malva neglecta Wallr.	Paaneerak	H	Malvaceae
Melia azedarach L.	Toorashandiy	T	Meliaceae
Mentha longifolia (L.)	Weenalaay	H	Lamiaceae
Micromeria biflora (Buch. Ham. ex D. Don) Benth.	Naaraysho maakay	H	Lamiaceae
Mirabilis jalapa L.	Gulaabasi	H	Nyctaginaceae
Morus nigra L.	Tour tooth	T	Moraceae
Myrsine africana L.	Ghorakaai	S	Myrsinaceae
Nerium oleander L.	Gaanderay	S	Apocynaceae
Ocimum basilicum L.	Kaashmalay	H	Lamiaceae
Olea ferruginea Wall.ex Aitch.	Khonoo	T	Oleaceae
Origanum vulgare L.	Ghaar kaashmalay	H	Lamiaceae
Oxalis corniculata L.	Treewaakay	H	Oxalidaceae
Parrotiopsis jacquemontiana (Decne.)	Beeraanj	T	Hamamelidaceae
Pimpinella diversifolia DC.	Khaarboty	H	Umbelliferae
Pinus roxburghii Sarg.	Naakhtar	T	Pinaceae
Pinus wallichiana A.B. Jack.	Srufh	T	Pinaceae
Pistacia chinensis Bunge	Sheeraawan	T	Araceae
Plantago lanceolate L.	Ghowajabaiy	H	Plantaginaceae
Prunus persica (L.) Batsch	Shaltaalo	T	Rosaceae
Psidium guajava L.	Amroode	T	Myrtaceae
Pteris cretica L.	Sheenalaay	H	Pteridaceae
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Scientific name	Vernacular name	Growth form	Plant family
Quercus baloot Griffith.	Zeegawanh	T	Fagaceae
Quercus incana Bartram	Seraiy	T	Fagaceae
Rhus punjabensis J. L. Stewart ex Brandis	Teetraay	T	Anacardiaceae
Rosa webbiana Wall. Ex Royle	Zaangley Gulaab	S	Rosaceae
Rumex hastatus D. Don	Taaro okaay	H	Polygonaceae
Saccharum griffithii Munro exAitch.	Maargho	H	Poaceae
Sageretia thea (Osbeck)	Maamanrra	S	Rhamnaceae
Salvia hians Royle	Chaatry	H	Lamiaceae
Salvia moorcroftiana Wall.ex Benth.	Khowarghogh	H	Lamiaceae
Sarcococca pruniformis Lindl.	Sheenalay	S	Buxaceae
Scabiosa candollei DC.	Maatakh	H	Caprifoliaceae
Solanum villosum Mill.	Kaacmachoo	H	Solanaceae
Solanum surattense Burm.f.	Maraaghoonay	H	Solanaceae
Solidago radula Nutt.	Unknown	H	Asteraceae
Stipagrostis ciliata (Desf.)De Winter	Lakhtiwakhoo	H	Poaceae
Tagetes minuta L.	Daambergulay	H	Asteraceae
Teucrium capitatum L.	Speerbotaay	H	Lamiaceae
Themeda anathera (Nees ex Steud.)	Teerowaakho	H	Poaceae
Thymus linearis Benth.	Speerkaai	H	Lamiaceae
Verbena officinalis L.	Shomakaay	H	Verbenaceae
Viola biflora L.	Banafshaa	H	Violaceae
Zanthoxylum armatum DC.	Dambaara	T	Rutaceae
Zea mays L.	Jowarr	H	Poaceae
Zizyphus jujube Mill.	Markhanii	T	Rhamnaceae
Zizyphus oxyphylla Edgew.	Enalaiy	S	Rhamnaceae

T: Tree, H: Herb, and S: Shrub.

The Ghahi Valley’s ethnomedicinal plant species family list

According to the floristic analysis (Figure 5; Table 3), a total of 48 plant families were documented from the study area. Among these, Poaceae was the most dominant family, comprising nine species, followed by Asteraceae with five species, Rosaceae and Pinaceae with four species each, and Pteridaceae and Rhamnaceae with three species each. Several families, including Araceae, Apocynaceae, and Anacardiaceae, were represented by a single species.

Mono-herbal ethnomedicinal applications

According to local informants, 65 plant species representing 41 botanical families were employed as mono-herbal remedies for treating a variety of ailments in the study area. These included 30 herbs, 12 shrubs, and 23 trees, each playing a role in the community’s traditional healthcare practices. A range of plant parts was incorporated in remedy preparation, with leaves being the most frequently utilized (34%), followed by fruits (19%), whole plants (11%), roots (7%), flowers (6%), bark (6%), aerial parts (6%), seeds (3%), gum (3%), and bulb, rhizome, and latex, each contributing 2%. Regarding preparation methods, decoction emerged as the most popular (45%), followed by dermal application (12%), crushed form (18%), and direct use (25%). Table 4 offers a thorough synopsis of these results, and Figures 6, 7, and 8 offer a graphic depiction.

Table 3: Family list of ethnomedicinal plant species recorded from Ghahi Valley.

Family name	Number of plant species
Alliaceae	2
Anacardiaceae	1
Apocynaceae	1
Araceae	1
Asclepiadaceae	1
Asteraceae	5
Berberidaceae	1
Betulaceae	1
Brassicaceae	1
Buxaceae	1
Cannabaceae	1
Caprifoliaceae	1
Convolvulaceae	1
Dryopteridaceae	1
Ebenaceae	1
Equisetaceae	1
Euphorbiaceae	1
Fagaceae	2
Fumariaceae	1
Hamamelidaceae	1
Lamiaceae	1
Malvaceae	1
Meliaceae	1
Mimosaceae	2
Moraceae	2
Myrsinaceae	1
Myrtaceae	2
Nyctaginaceae	1
Oleaceae	1
Oxalidaceae	1
Papilionaceae	1
Pinaceae	4
Plantaginaceae	1
Poaceae	9
Polygonaceae	1
Pteredaceae	3
Ranunculaceae	1
Rhamnaceae	3
Rosaceae	4
Rutaceae	2
Sapindaceae	1
Saxifragaceae	1
Simaroubaceae	1
Solanaceae	2
Umbelliferae	3
Verbenaceae	1
Violaceae	1

Polyherbal plant recipes

These polyherbal formulations were primarily employed to treat complex or chronic ailments, where the synergistic effects of multiple plant species were believed to enhance therapeutic efficacy. Local informants emphasized that combining species not only increased the potency of the remedy but also helped minimize potential side effects. Preparation methods varied, including decoctions, pastes, and infusions, often customized based on the specific health condition being treated. The detailed list of plant species involved in these formulations, along with the specific plant parts used and their associated medicinal purposes, is provided in Table 5. This table illustrates the ethnobotanical richness and complexity embedded in the local healing practices, highlighting the importance of preserving this traditional knowledge for future pharmacological and ethnopharmacological research.

Table 4: Mono herbal recipes according to responses.

Scientific name of plants	Local names	Plant family of plants	Part used	Disease/ condition	Recipe/formulation	Recommended dosage	Time to recovery
Abies pindrow	Belanziy	Pinaceae	Leaves, Barks	Blood sugar disorder	Before being used, the Abies bark infusion was boiled in water and allowed to cool. The preparation was taken orally in one teacup.	For ten consecutive days, twice a day	At least 15 days
				Dry cough	One teacup of the cooled decoction of dried leaves boiled in water is consumed orally	Two times per day	3 Days
				Respiratory allergy	The cooled decoction of dried leaves boiled in water is taken orally in one cup	Two times per da	10-15 minutes
Acacia modesta	Palosaa	Mimosaceae	Gums	Herbal infusion	After that, 20 grams of the plant's gums are eaten.	For fifteen to twenty days, once daily	3 weeks
Acacia modesta	Palosaa	Mimosaceae	Young branch	Toothbrush	Every three days, the young branch is used as a miswak.	Just once a day	One day
Acacia nilotica	Kikarr	Mimosaceae	Gums	Blood sugar disorder	Doses of 20 g of the plant's gum are taken	Once a day for a week	Ten days
				Constip ation		Three time a day	One day
Adiantum venustum	Patosanr aa	Pteredaceae	Entire plants	Dry cough	One cup at a time, forty grams of the entire plant are boiled in one jug of water, cooled, and then consumed orally.	For three days, three times a day	Four days a week
				Toothbrush	They are used to clean teeth every two days	Once a day	One day
Ajuga bracteosa	Guttiy	Lamiaceae	Entire plants	Refrigerant	One glass of water is used to soak the entire plant overnight, and the infusion is then consumed orally prior to breakfast.	Every day for a week	Ten days
				Pain reliever		For three days, once daily	For four days
				Hypersensitivity		For three days, once daily	For four days
Allium cepa	Piyaz	Alliaceae	Bulbs	Healing a spot	To encourage healing, a heated bulb piece is applied to pimples.	For three days, twice a day	Three days
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Scientific name of plants	Local names	Plant family of plants	Part used	Disease/ condition	Recipe/formulation	Recommended dosage	Time to recovery
Allium sativum	Ogaa	Alliaceae	Bulbs	High blood pressure	To help lower blood pressure, two to three bulbs are consumed.	For two days, once a day	Half an hour
			Leaves	Dysentery	A few fresh leaves are boiled in water to make a decoction, which is then cooled and consumed.	Once a day	Three days
Alnus nitida	Geeraay	Betulaceae	Barks	Cough medicine,	Alnus bark is boiled in water, and the cooled concoction is then consumed orally.	Two time a day for two days	Four days
				Urinary tract disorder		Twice a day for one week	Ten days
Berberis lyceum	Kowraay	Berberidaceae	Roots	Yellowing of the skin	One glass of water is used to soak thirty grams of roots overnight, and they are then consumed orally before breakfast.	Once daily, 7–10 days	15 days
				Refrigerant		Four days, once a day	Five days a week
				Gastric ulcer		For three days, once daily	Time frame: two to three weeks
Bergenia ciliate	Gut gulaay	Saxifragaceae	Rhizomes	Herbal infusion	As a tonic, 15 grams of rhizome powder combined with butter are used.	For ten to fifteen days, take one teaspoon every day.	Two weeks
			Fruits	Back pain	To treat backache, crush six to seven dried fruits, combine them with one cup of milk, and take the mixture orally.	For ten days, once daily	One week, fifteen days
			Rhizomes	Healing sore	To encourage healing, dry powder is applied to the wound site as needed.	Four days, once a day	Ten days
Calotropis procera	Spalamaa	Asclepiadaceae	Latexs	Healing sore	applied topically using a half-spoonful of milk.	Twice a day	15 days
	y	ae		Dermatophytosis	infected part.	a day for ten days	days
			Whole plant	Cough,	They smoked some dried leaves.	For two days, once a day	Three days
			Leaves	Bronchial asthma		Every day	Half an hour
Caltha alba	Dam panraa	Ranunculaceae	Whole plant	Herbal extract	To encourage healing, Caltha leaves are heated and applied to pimples.	For two days, once a day	Three days
				Stomach ache	A glass of water is used to boil the entire plant, and once it has cooled, the decoction is consumed orally.	Twice daily	One day
Cannabis sativa	Bangg	Cannabaceae	Leaves	Dyspepsia	One glass of leaves is consumed before lunch and dinner after they have been boiled in water, cooled, and sweetened with sugar.	For four to five days, once daily	Thirty minutes
			Whole plant	Refrigerant	Young branches and leaves are boiled in a glass of milk and mixed with dried fruit to make Tendai, a summertime remedy.	For seven to ten days, twice a day	A week
Cedrus deodara	Nazlou	Pinaceae	Bark	Diabetes mellitus	A beverage is made by boiling Cedrus bark in water.	For two days, once a day	Two weeks
					Table continues on next page..........
Scientific name of plants	Local names	Plant family of plants	Part used	Disease/ condition	Recipe/formulation	Recommended dosage	Time to recovery
			Leaves	Dry cough	One glass of water is used to boil a few leaves, then the resulting decoction is cooled and drunk.	For four days, twice a day	Five days
Citrus sinensis	Maltaa	Rutaceae	Leaves	Dysentery	Leaves boiled in water as needed; cooled decoction taken orally (one cup).	Three times a day	One day
			Fruits	Gingival bleeding	Gum bleeding is caused by one or two fruits.	For two days, twice a day	Three days
Convolvulus arvensis	Preewataiy	Convolvulaceae	Roots	High blood sugar	After boiling the roots of this plant in water, the mixture is cooled, and one glass is consumed.	For four days, twice a day	Two weeks
			Leaves	Skin disease	Boil the leaves in enough water, then drink the cooled concoction.	For ten days, once daily	30 minutes for two weeks
Coriandrum sativum	Danyaa	Umbelliferae	Leaves	Dyspepsia	To treat indigestion, fresh leaves are eaten as a salad.	For four days, twice a day	A week
			Seeds	Digestive stimulant	When necessary, seed powder is used as a carminative condiment.	For ten days, twice daily	A week
Coronopus didymus	Sakhaa botay	Brassicaceae	Leaves	Dyspepsia	To treat indigestion and act as a carminative, a few fresh leaves are eaten as a salad	For four days, twice a day	Five days
Cydonia oblonga	Boyii	Rosaceae	Fruits	Heart-tonic	Some fruits have heart-tonic properties.	Twice daily	Typically,
			Seeds	Cough medicine	One teaspoon of pine powder is made by crushing a few dried seeds.	For two to three days, twice a day	Four days
				Intestinal disorder		For five days, three times a day or once a day	One day
Cynodon dactylon	Kaball	Poaceae	Entire plants	Intestinal disorder	One glass of the resulting decoction is taken orally after the roots of this plant are boiled in water and allowed to cool.	Once every day	One day, one week, one hour, two weeks
				Detoxifier	One cup of the decoction is consumed after the entire plant has been boiled in water and allowed to cool.	For ten days, three times a day	Two weeks
Dodonea viscosa	Ghowara skayy	Sapindaceae	Leaves	Inflammation of joints	To relieve pain, fresh leaves are applied to joints.	For ten days, three times a day	Three weeks
Equisetum arvensis	Bandakaa y	Equisetaceae	Whole plants	Nephrolithiasis	Boil the entire plant in water, then drink one glass of the cooled decoction.	For fifteen days, twice a day	Typically,
				Bladder disorder		Twice daily	Four days
Eriobotrya japonica	Lowkaat	Rosaceae	Leaves	Diabetes mellitus	Pine powder made from crushed dried leaves, taken orally.	For two to three days, twice a day	One day
Eucalyptus globules Labill.	Lachiy	Myrtaceae	Leave	Tooth pain	After chewing a few leaves, they are applied to the infected tooth.	Twice daily for a single day	Half an hour
Ficus carica	Inzaar	Moraceae	Fruits	Hard stools	There were not many fruits consumed.	Once every day	Two days
			Latexs	Calculi removal	Thorns are removed with latex.	Twice daily for five days	Five minutes or less
Foeniculum vulgare	Kagi enalaay	Umbelliferae	Young branches and leaves	gastric distress, bloating	For digestive and carminative purposes, fresh young branches and leaves are consumed as needed.	Five days, once a day	Typically, the entire week or the entire month
					Table continues on next page..........
Scientific name of plants	Local names	Plant family of plants	Part used	Disease/ condition	Recipe/formulation	Recommended dosage	Time to recovery
			Fruits	Abdominal pain, Gastric ulcer	Dried fruit is ground and mixed with sugar to improve the taste. One spoonful is used to treat stomach disorders.	For three to four weeks, once or twice a day	Half an hour
Fumaria indica	Shataraa	Fumariaceae	Entire plant	Gastric erosion	One glass of water was used to boil the entire plant, and the resulting decoction was then taken orally.	Twice daily for a single day	Two days
				Liver disease		Once every day	Five minutes or less
				Blood purifier		every day for five days.	One week
				Stomach ulcer		For five days, once daily	One week
				Belly ache		For five days, once daily	One week
Indigofera heterantha	Ghoreejho	Papilionaceae	Roots	Loose stools	After boiling in water, the roots were cooled and sieved to obtain a pure single glass of the decoction.	Three times a day	One day
			Leave	Gastric ulcer	The leaves are boiled in water, cooled, and then sieved to produce a pure decoction	For three to five days, once daily	One week
Isodon rugosus	Krachay	Lamiaceae	Leave	Sore throat	After chewing a few fresh leaves, the juice is ingested.	For three days, twice a day	Five days
Mallotus philippensis	Kam- mbeela	Euphorbiaceae	Fruits	Dermatophytosis	A small number of dried fruits are ground up and combined with butter to cure the skin.	For five days, twice a day	One week
Malva neglecta	Paneeraak	Malvaceae	Leave	Midsection pain	One cup of the decoction made from boiling the leaves of this plant in water is then consumed as a beverage.	Three times a day	One day
			Roots	Gastric ulcer	After being boiled in water, the roots of this plant were left to cool decoction, then sip from a single glass.	Three times every day	One day
Melia azedarach	Tora Shaandi	Meliaceae	Fruits	Fungal skin infection	After consuming one glass of water, fruit is boiled and sugar is added to make it taste good.	Five days, once a day	A week
			Leave	Diabetes mellitus	The juice is swallowed after chewing a few fresh leaves.	For five days, once daily	A week
			Roots	Tooth sensitivity	On the infected tooth, a particular dried root is ground into a powder.	Once daily Twice daily	An hour
Mentha longifolia	winala y	Lamiaceae	Leave	Dyspepsia, Gas reliever	In addition to being dried and turned into pine powder, some fresh leaves are used in salads.	Once every day or every two days	Half an hour
Micromeria biflora	Naray shomakaa y	Lamiaceae	Young stems and leaves	Gastric pain	The juice is swallowed after chewing fresh leaves.	Twice daily for	One day, three days
Mirabilis jalapa	Gulabasii	Nyctaginaceae	Leaves	Pimple recovery	A heated leaf is applied to pimples to help them heal.	Five days, once a day	Five days
Morus nigra	Toor tut	Moraceae	Fruits	Pectoral pain	After the fruits are percolated and their juice extracted, combine	For five days, once daily	A week
					Use a drink with warm water.	three days
				Tonsillitis	To make a drink, fruit was percolated to extract its juice, which was then combined with warm water.	For two days, twice a day	Three days
					Table continues on next page..........
Scientific name of plants	Local names	Plant family of plants	Part used	Disease/ condition	Recipe/formulation	Recommended dosage	Time to recovery
Myrsine Africana	Ghowara kaii	Myrsinaceae	Fruits	Helminths	One teaspoon of crushed pine powder made from dried fruits is taken orally.	For five days, once daily	One day, one week
			Branches and leaves	Detoxifier	One glass of water is used to boil a few fresh leaves.	For five days, once daily	Half an hour
Nerium oleander	Gandeeraay	Apocynaceae	Leaves	Oral pain	Chewing fresh leaves and then applying them to an infected tooth.	For two days, once daily	Three days in a week
Ocimum basilicum	Kashmaalay	Lamiaceae	Flowers	Thoracic pain,	Flowers are boiled in half a glass of water.	Three times a day	One day
				Dysentery		One cup each day, once	Half an hour
Olea ferruginea	Khonoo	Oleaceae	Leaves	Sore throat	After chewing a few fresh leaves, the juice is ingested.	For two days, twice a day	Five minutes or less
Origanum vulgare	Ghaar kaashmalay	Lamiaceae	entire plant	Stomach ache	One cup of water is used to boil the entire plant.	For five days, once daily	Three days
Oxalis corniculata	Treewak aay	Oxalidaceae	Leaves	Thrombosis	To halt the bleeding, freshly chewed leaves are applied to the wound.	For five days, once daily	One day, one week
				Gastric distress	One cup of water brought the entire plant to a boil.	Three times every day	Three days
Pinus roxburghii	Teetraay	Pinaceae	Fruits	Herbal infusion	Fruits are used as a tonic for the body and brain.	For three to four weeks, twice daily	A month
			Gums	Skin disease	Twenty grams of the plant's gums are taken orally.	For ten days, once daily	Ten days and two weeks
				Blood detoxification		For a week, once every day	Two feeble
Pistacia chinensis	Sheerawaa n	Araceae	Leaves	Liver inflammation	The leaves can be used as a beverage once they have been boiled in a glass of water and allowed to cool.	For ten days, once daily	Three days
			Barks	Refrigerants	We can have a drink after the bark has been boiled in a glass of water and allowed to cool.	For two days, one glass per day	Ten days in a week
				Hyperbilirubinemia		For five days, one glass per day	One day
Plantago lanceolata	Ghouwa jabaiy	Plantaginaceae	Whole plant	Stomach ache	The flower and leaves are boiled in half a cup of water, then cooled. Then we can have a drink.	For a week, twice daily	A month
				Intestinal disorder	After being boiled in water, flowers and leaves are cooled.	Three times every day	Ten days and two weeks
				Asthma	We can have a drink after that.	One time	An hour
Prunus persica.	Shaptaloo	Rosaceae	Leaves	Intestinalparasites	After being boiled in water, leaves are cooled. We can have a drink after that.	Once daily	One day
			Fruits	Abdominal pain	For stomachaches, fruit is used.	Three times daily	Ten days
Psidium guajava	Am rood	Myrtaceae	Leaves	Blood sugar	The leaves can be used as a beverage after being boiled in one cup of water and cooled.	For five days, once daily	Three days, one week,
			Fruits	Stomach discomfort	Fruits aid in digestion.	For two days, twice a day	A week
					Table continues on next page..........
Scientific name of plants	Local names	Plant family of plants	Part used	Disease/ condition	Recipe/formulation	Recommended dosage	Time to recovery
Quercus baloot	Zigaawany	Fagaceae	Fruits	Fortifier	Not many fruits are heated before consumption.	For five days, once daily	A week
				Urinary tract disorder		For five days, once daily	Typically, one week
Quercus incana	Seraiy	Fagaceae	Fruits	Fortifier	Not many fruits are heated before consumption.	Twice daily for a week	An hour
				Urinary tract disorder		For five days, once daily	One day, one day
Rhus punjabensis	Teetrayy	Anacardiaceae	Fruits	Hemorrhage	To stop bleeding, use fruits.	For two days, twice a day	Ten days
				Bleeding gums	Gum bleeding can be prevented by eating fruit.	For five days, once daily	Three days, one week, and one hour
Rosa webbiana	Zangalii gulab	Rosaceae	Flowers	Belly pain	A spoonful of sugar is taken orally after certain webbiana petals are left for two hours	One time	An hour
Rumex hastatus	Tarukay	Polygonacea e	Flowers	Intestinal disorder	After boiling rumex flowers in a glass of water and cooling the mixture, it was ready to drink.	Three to five times a day, one cup	One day
			Leaves	Thrombosis	Fresh rumex leaves can be applied as a paste to wounds to halt the bleeding.	Once	Five minutes or less
Sageretia thea	Mammanra	Rhamnaceae	Roots	Blood detox	After boiling the roots in water, the resulting liquid is cooled and made into a drink.	For three days, one glass per day	Three days
				Hyperbilirubinemia		For a week, one glass per day	Ten days
				Miscarriage		Every day, one glass	everyday
Salvia moorcroftiana	Khowarg howaag	Lamiaceae	Leaves	Wound repair	To treat pimples, warm mustard oil is applied to fresh leaves.	For two days, once daily	Three days
			Seeds	Gastrointestinal upset	Pine powder is made by crushing dried seeds.	Three times a day, half a teaspoon	One day
				Belly pain		Once every day	An hour
Sarcococca prunif ormis	Sheenaalay	Buxaceae	Leaves	Gas reliever	The leaves are boiled in water, then the liquid is cooled and turned into a beverage.	For a day, have one cup twice daily.	Two days
				Gastrointestinal pain	The decoction is cooled and turned into a beverage after the leaves are boiled in water.	Once every day	An hour
Solanum villosum	Karmachu	Solanaceae	Fruits	Intestinal disorder	They use fruits.	Three to four times daily, for ten days,	One day
				Nausea and vomiting	They use fruits.	For five days, once daily	In fifteen minutes
Solanum surattense	Marghono ay	Solanaceae	Entire plant	Bronchial asthma	To make the decoction fit for consumption, the entire plant is boiled in a glass of water, then allowed to cool.	For five days, twice a day	A week
				Liver disease		For two days, twice a day	Two weeks
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Scientific name of plants	Local names	Plant family of plants	Part used	Disease/ condition	Recipe/formulation	Recommended dosage	Time to recovery
				Hepatic jaundice		Once every day	Ten days
Teucrium capitatum	Speera botaay	Lamiaceae	Entire plant	Digestive stimulant	The decoction was ready to drink after the entire plant was boiled in a single glass of water and allowed to cool.	For a day, have one cup twice daily.	Three days
				Indigestion		Three time a day	One day
				Jaundic e		For five days, twice a day	Three days
Thymus linearis	Speerkaay	Lamiaceae	Shoot	Fever reducer	We made a drink out of thymus shoots that had been boiled in a glass of water and allowed to cool.	For one day, once a day	Four days
Verbena officinalis	Shomakaa y	Verbenaceae	Entire plant	Malaria treatment, Fever reducer	To make a drink, the entire plant is boiled in a glass of water, cooled, and sieved to obtain a pure decoction. Sugar is added to make it more palatable.	For three days, once daily	Two days
Viola biflora	Benafshaa	Violaceae	Flowers	Cough medicine	Flowers can be boiled in water and then cooled to make a drink, or they can be crushed into a fine powder and used with water.	For one day, once a day	One week
				Fever reducer		For five days, once daily	Three days
				Cardiac tonic		For five days, twice daily	Three days
Zanthoxylum armatum	Dambaraa	Rutacea	Fruits	Abdominal pain	Pine powder was created by crushing dried fruits, which were then taken orally	three times every day for	Four days
				Fever reducer		For five days, twice a day, two days	Two days
Zea mays	Jowaar	Poaceae	Pollen tubes	Urinary disorder	After boiling pollen tubes in a single glass of water, the resulting concoction can be consumed.	For five days, have one cup twice daily.	One week
Zizyphus jujube	Markhany	Rhamnaceae	Leaves	Blood sugar	One glass of water is used to boil the leaves, and once the mixture has cooled, it can be consumed.	For seven days, once a day	Ten days
Ziziphus oxyphylla	Enalaiy	Rhamnaceae	Roots	abortion	One glass of water is used to boil the roots.	Twice daily for two days	Months
			Fruits	Urinary tract infections	Fruits are rarely consumed orally.	For five days, have one cup twice daily.	Four days

Consensus factor

A total of 19 different ailment categories were identified based on the ethnomedicinal uses of plants in the Ghahi Valley. These included commonly reported conditions such as fever (antipyretic), blood purification, malaria (antimalarial), heat-related disorders (cooling agent), and others. The complete list of ailment categories and associated plant species is provided in Table 6 and illustrated in Figure 9.

Complete pact among informants was indicated by the highest Informant Consensus Factor (ICF) value of 1.0, which was noted for the removal of spines and the use of antimalarial drugs. On the other hand, skin disorders had the lowest ICF value, 0.28 (see Table 6, Figure 8).

Table 5: Polyherbal remedies of ethnomedicinal plants used by local communities.

Polyherbal preparation name	Plant scientific names	Plant family	Vernacular name	Growth habit	Plant part used	Ailment/ disease	Dosage Administered	Duration of recovery
Methods of preparing herbal remedies	Citrus sinensis	Rutaceae	Maltaa	S	Leaves and branches	Diarrhea	Three times a day, one teacup	Once a day
	Mentha longifolia	Lamiaceae	Weenalaay	H	Entire plant	Diarrhea	Three times a day, one teacup	One hour a day
	Allium cepa	Alliaceae	Piyyaz	H	Leaves	Diarrhea	Every day, one teacup	One hour a day
Methods of preparing herbal remedies	Foeniculum vulgare	Umbelliferae	Kagaienalay	H	Fruit	Abdominal pain	Every day, one teacup	One hour a day
Methods of preparing herbal remedies	Thymus linearis	Lamiaceae	GhaAr speerkai	H	Flowers	Abdominal pain	Every day, one teacup	One hour a day
Methods of preparing herbal remedies	Sageretia thea	Rhamnaceae	Mamanrrah	S	Roots	Jaundice	Every day before breakfast, one glass is consumed	Once a week
Methods of preparing herbal remedies	Indigofera heterantha	Papilionaceae	Ghwaregah	S	Roots	Jaundice	Every day before breakfast, one glass is consumed	Once a week

Table 6: Factor of informant consensus.

Utilize categories	Number of taxa (NT)	Number of uses report (NUR)	ICF
Anti-abortion	3	6	0.65
Antimalarial remedy	2	4	2
Antipyretic	6	15	0.79
Blood cleansing agent	7	17	0.69
Temperature-reducing agent	3	15	0.6
Diabetes mellitus	7	26	0.72
Digestive system disorders and Intestinal worm infections	21	80	0.71
Cardiovascular disorders	4	19	0.92
Liver disorders	7	35	0.9
Kidney stone	4	9	0.88
Removal of spines	2	5	0.92
Respiratory disorder	16	44	0.78
Rheumatism	3	24	0.99
Skin disorder	7	6	0.26
Stomach disorder	14	71	0.81
Dental problems	3	33	0.79
Tonic	9	38	0.83
Urinary disorder	4	13	0.62
Wound and cut	7	15	0.57

Fidelity level

The current study identified a total of 12 plant species that were most frequently used by local informants to treat specific ailments, as presented in Table 7. Among these, Mentha longifolia and Foeniculum vulgare exhibited the highest Fidelity Level (FL) values, each scoring 75%, indicating strong consensus among respondents for their use in treating carminative disorders and hepatitis, respectively. In contrast, Fumaria indica showed the lowest FL value of 43% for its use against hepatitis. These findings are further illustrated in Table 7 and Figure 10, highlighting the relative cultural importance and perceived efficacy of each species in traditional medicinal practices.

Table 7: The degree of fidelity of plants used in ethnomedicine.

Plant name	Disease	IP	IU	FL%
Morus nigra	Throat inflammation	7	8	65
Ajuga bracteosa	Antipyretic	5	7	49
Berberis lyceum	Hepatic dysfunction	8	12	45
Viola biflora	Bronchial secretagogue	4	13	44
Equisetum arvensis	Nephrolithiasis	5	6	59
Fumaria indica	Liver inflammation	7	13	44
Ocimum basilicum	Pectoral discomfort	3	10	46
Ziziphus jujuba	High blood sugar	7	8	69
Verbena officinalis	Malaria treatment	5	6	48
Mentha longifolia	Gas reliever	4	6	73
Foeniculum vulgare	Liver infection	8	7	71
Allium sativum	High blood pressure	3	5	63

*IP: Number of informants who use plants for a specific disease. *IU: Total number of informants who use these plants for various diseases.

Preference ranking

This study identified five plant species with a range of uses. According to Table 8, Morus nigra was the most preferred species, followed by Melia azedarach, Quercus incana, Quercus baloot, and Cedrus deodara.

Evaluation of the Ghahi Valley’s ethnomedicinal plants’ conservation status and susceptibility

A survey was made on indigenous plant species on the basis of their dependence on the native population for numerous purposes. The plants were classified into three categories of conservation status: highly vulnerable, moderately vulnerable, and less vulnerable. Altogether, 62 plant species were recorded in the study area, out of which 34 were herbs, 9 were shrubs, and 19 were trees. Based on local knowledge and observation, 5 species were rated as very vulnerable, none were rated as less vulnerable, and 57 species were rated as moderately vulnerable. Densities of the moderately vulnerable species ranged from 0.04 individuals per square meter (n/m2) to 38,960 individuals per hectare (n/ha), and their frequencies ranged from 4 to 68. In contrast, the extremely vulnerable species ranged in frequency from 4 to 20 and in density from 0.04 n/m² to 1,700 n/ha. Table 9 provides additional details on these plants’ conservation status.

Uses of the plants in ethnobotany

According to local people, a total of 85 plant species were recorded from the study area, each serving various traditional and practical purposes. These uses were categorized as follows: fodder (38%), general fuel use (22%), edible fruits (16%), construction materials (11%), fuelwood (12%), condiments (4%), vegetables (4%), ornamental purposes (4%), and furniture making (3%) (Figure 11). This wide range of uses highlights the multifunctional role of local flora in supporting rural livelihoods. The dependence of the local population on plant resources not only reflects their ecological knowledge but also underscores the importance of sustainable harvesting and conservation practices to prevent overexploitation. The predominance of plants used for fodder and fuel further suggests their critical role in daily subsistence, particularly in areas with limited access to modern alternatives (Ullah et al., 2018b).

Table 8: Tree species used in ethnomedicine in order of preference.

Uses	Morus nigra	Melia azedarach	Quercus incana	Quercus baloot	Cedrus deodara	Total	Rank
Firewood	4	3	6	7	6	26	1
Timber use	6	3	4	4	4	21	2
Livestock forage	4	4	4	2	1	16	3
Herbal medicine	4	3	3	1	2	13	4
Nutritional use	5	0	2	2	1	9	5
Cumulative count	23	13	19	15	14
Preference order	1	2	3	4	5

Rating scale: 5 = Excellent, 4 = very good, 3 = good, 2 = less used, 1 = least used, 0 = not used.

Table 9: Conservation status assessment of ethnomedicinal plants in Ghahi Valley.

Botanical name	Habit	Frequency	Density	RVA
Abies pindrow	T	7	660 n/he	Moderate vulnerability
Adiantum venustum	H	3	0.13 n/m²	Moderate vulnerability
Ajuga bracteosa.	H	5	0.03 n/m²	Moderate vulnerability
Ailanthus altissima	T	9	2160 n/he	Moderate vulnerability
Alnus nitida	T	9	540 n/he	Low vulnerability
Aristida adscensionis	H	33	4 n/m²	Moderate vulnerability
Berberis lycium	S	17	700 n/he	Moderate vulnerability
Bergenia ciliata	H	5	1.06 n/m²	High vulnerability
Bothriochloa ischaemum	H	21	2.58 n/m²	High vulnerability
Caltha alba	H	3	1.14 n/m²	Moderate vulnerability
Cannabis sativa	H	3	1.18 n/m²	Moderate vulnerability
Crotalaria calycina	H	3	1.14 n/m²	Moderate vulnerability
Cedrus deodara	T	21	6040 n/he	Moderate vulnerability
Cheilanthes dalhousiae	H	3	1.08 n/m²	Moderate vulnerability
Clanopodium valgure	H	7	0.17 n/m²	Moderate vulnerability
Erigeron canadensis	H	11	0.05 n/m²	Moderate vulnerability
Cynodon dactylon	H	46	14.8 n/m²	Moderate vulnerability
Diospyros lotus	T	33	322 n/he	Moderate vulnerability
Dodonaea viscosa	S	5	1500 n/he	Moderate vulnerability
Dryopteris serrato-dentata	H	5	0.06 n/m²	Moderate vulnerability
Echinochloa crus-galli	H	13	2.1 n/m²	Moderate vulnerability
Erigeron multicaulis	H	6	1.06 n/m²	Moderate vulnerability
Eucalyptus globulus	T	6	260 n/he	Moderate vulnerability
Ficus caricca	T	21	740 n/he	Moderate vulnerability
Heteropogon contortus	H	29	4.4 n/m²	Moderate vulnerability
Indigofera heterantha	S	33	8100 n/he	Moderate vulnerability
Isodon rugosus	S	17	5000 n/he	Moderate vulnerability
Launaea nudicaulis	H	3	1.02 n/m²	Moderate vulnerability
Mallotus philippensis	T	3	500 n/he	Moderate vulnerability
Melia azedarach	T	7	2220 n/he	Moderate vulnerability
Micromeria biflora	H	22	1.28 n/m²	Moderate vulnerability
Morus nigra	T	9	1420 n/he	Moderate vulnerability
Myrsine africana	S	45	7400 n/he	Moderate vulnerability
Nerium oleander	S	9	8100 n/he	Moderate vulnerability
Olea ferruginea	T	35	3420 n/he	Low vulnerability
Origanum vulgare	H	9	0.34 n/m²	Moderate vulnerability
Oxalis corniculata	H	11	0.34 n/m²	Moderate vulnerability
Parrotiopsis jacquemontiana	S	23	6300 n/he	Moderate vulnerability
Pimpinella diversifolia	H	6	1.02 n/m²	Moderate vulnerability
Pinus roxburghii	T	26	2800 n/he	Moderate vulnerability
Pinus wallichiana	T	56	20040 n/he	Moderate vulnerability
Pistacia chinensis	T	3	1200 n/he	Moderate vulnerability
Plantago lanceolata	H	3	0.05 n/m²	Moderate vulnerability
Pteris cretica	H	15	1.18 n/m²	Moderate vulnerability
Qucrcus baloot	T	44	4480 n/he	Low vulnerability
			Table continues on next page..........
Botanical name	Habit	Frequency	Density	RVA
Quercus incana.	T	56	48960 n/he	Moderate vulnerability
Rhus punjabensis	T	9	460 n/he	Moderate vulnerability
Rumex hastatus	H	19	0.86 n/m²	Moderate vulnerability
Saccharum griffthi	H	5	0.34 n/m²	Moderate vulnerability
Sageretia thea	S	22	1600 n/he	High vulnerability
Salvia hians	H	5	0.07 n/m²	High vulnerability
Sarcococca pruniformis	S	3	500 n/he	Moderate vulnerability
Scabiosa candollei	H	3	0.05 n/m²	Moderate vulnerability
Solanum surattense	H	9	1.7 n/m²	Moderate vulnerability
Solidago virgaurea	H	3	0.05 n/m²	Moderate vulnerability
Stipagrostis ciliata	H	22	4.25 n/m²	Moderate vulnerability
Tagetes minuta	H	5	0.12 n/m²	Moderate vulnerability
Themeda anathera	H	7	0.23 n/m²	Moderate vulnerability
Thymus linearis	H	17	0.86 n/m²	Moderate vulnerability
Viola biflora	H	5	0.13 n/m²	Moderate vulnerability
Zanthoxylum armatum	T	6	45 n/he	High vulnerability
Zizyphus jujuba	T	3	81 n/he	Moderate vulnerability

The following units and abbreviations are used throughout the study: n represents the number of plant species; m² denotes a square meter; ha stands for hectare, where one hectare equals 10,000 square meters. The term n/ha refers to the number of tree or shrub species per hectare, while n/m² indicates the number of herb species per square meter. For categorizing vulnerability, low vulnerability, moderate vulnerability, and high vulnerability, respectively.

Correlation analysis

Pearson correlation coefficients were calculated and arranged using hierarchical clustering. The color scale ranges from blue (strong negative correlation) to red (strong positive correlation). The dendrogram reveals that NT and NUR are closely related, reflecting their shared role in measuring species importance, while ICF captures consensus independent of species count or use frequency, as shown in Figure 12.

Discussion

Because Pakistan has a variety of soil types, ecological zones, and climate zones, its flora is exceptionally rich. Plants are essential to human life because they can be used for food, medicine, animal feed, and other purposes. According to the current study, at least 89 plant species from 47 botanical families are used by the locals in the Ghahi Valley. These plants are gathered from different parts of the research area.

With 11 species, the Lamiaceae family was the most prevalent, followed by the Poaceae (9 species), Asteraceae (5 species), Rosaceae and Pinaceae (4 species each), Rhamnaceae, and Pteridaceae (3 species each). Alliaceae, Fagaceae, Mimosaceae, Moraceae, Rutaceae, and Solanaceae were among the families with two species each (Liu et al., 2023). Additionally, 35 families such as Anacardiaceae, Apocynaceae, Araceae, Asclepiadaceae, Berberidaceae, Betulaceae, Brassicaceae, Buxaceae, Cannabaceae, Caprifoliaceae, Convolvulaceae, Dryopteridaceae, Ebenaceae, Equisetaceae, Fumariaceae, Hamamelidaceae, Malvaceae, Meliaceae, Nyctaginaceae, Oleaceae, Oxalidaceae, Papilionaceae, Plantaginaceae, Polygonaceae, Ranunculaceae, Saxifragaceae, Simaroubaceae, Verbenaceae, and Sapindaceae were each represented by a single species (Shakir et al., 2023; Adnan et al., 2014; Ahmad et al., 2016). The use of medicinal plants dates back to ancient times. In Pakistan, especially among rural communities, people heavily rely on plants for treating various ailments in both humans and animals. Different plant parts, containing bioactive constituents, are used in traditional medicine systems (Ahmad et al., 2016). The trade of medicinal plants is often facilitated through local herbal markets known as “Pansar”, which play a significant role in the local economy. Pakistan also exports medicinal plants to several countries around the world (Ullah et al., 2021; Ali et al., 2024).

The flora of Ghahi Valley in Pakistan is rich and diverse due to the region’s varied soil conditions, multiple ecological zones, and diverse climatic conditions (Amin et al., 2024). Plants play an essential role in human life by serving as sources of medicine, food, fodder, and other necessities (Ullah et al., 2019a).

The present study documented 65 ethnomedicinal plant species belonging to 41 botanical families, which were recorded through field surveys conducted in various locations of Ghahi Valley (Amiri et al., 2013). Each species was listed with its scientific name, local name, family, habitat, plant parts used, mode of preparation (recipes), dosage, and reported recovery (Shakir et al., 2023; Amjad et al., 2020). Among the frequently used mono- and polyherbal medicinal plants in the area are: Abies pindrow, Acacia modesta, Acacia nilotica, Adiantum venustum, Ajuga bracteosa, Allium cepa, Allium sativum, Alnus nitida, Berberis lyceum, Bergenia ciliata, Calotropis procera, Caltha alba, Cannabis sativa, Cedrus deodara, Citrus sinensis, Convolvulus arvensis, Coriandrum sativum, Coronopus didymus, Cydonia oblonga, Cynodon dactylon, Dodonea viscosa, Equisetum arvensis (Aziz et al., 2018, 2021; Ullah et al., 2018f).

The study reveals that local inhabitants rely heavily on these plants for treating a range of human and animal diseases. Plants are a major source of bioactive compounds used globally in pharmaceutical preparations. According to (Dastagir et al., 2022), medicinal plant use is among the most widespread traditional practices in the world, and an estimated 50,000 species may serve medicinal purposes nearly 20% of the world’s vascular flora (Shakir et al., 2023; Hussain et al., 2023). In Ghahi Valley, most medicinal plants are used within the framework of traditional (folk) medicine, primarily by elderly individuals who possess deep ethnobotanical knowledge. The dependence on plants is largely driven by the high cost of allopathic medicines and the lack of modern healthcare facilities in rural regions (Khan et al., 2015; Malik et al., 2015; Ullah et al., 2019c).

Medicinal plant parts used in treatments include rhizomes, roots, stems, bark, leaves, flowers, seeds, latex, and gums (Shakir et al., 2023; Rahman et al., 2022). These parts are believed to produce definite physiological and remedial effects. A wide variety of traditional herbal recipes are still in use today. For example, Zanthoxylum armatum seed powder is used for heartburn (Rahman et al., 2022). Ficus carica latex is used to remove spines (Ullah et al., 2018). Berberis lyceum root decoction is used for jaundice (Sardar et al., 2021). Myrsine africana seed powder is used for intestinal worms (Umair et al., 2019). Ajuga bracteosa whole plant decoction serves as a cooling agent (Zareef et al., 2023). Zizyphus jujube dried fruit powder is used to relieve cough (Zeb et al., 2022). Bergenia ciliata rhizome powder is applied for wound healing (Sajid et al., 2023). Caltha alba whole plant decoction is used for abdominal pain (Shakir et al., 2023).

The study further reveals that the highest Informant Consensus Factor (ICF) value was 1.0 for treatments related to antimalarial use and spine removal, indicating strong agreement among informants. Similarly, species such as Mentha longifolia and Foeniculum vulgare exhibited high fidelity level (FL) values (75%) against carminative disorders and hepatitis, respectively (Ullah et al., 2018a, c). Also reported an ICF of 1.0 for cardiovascular problems. In another study, Diospyros lycioides showed a high FL value of 83% for bleeding treatment. The most frequently used plant part in Ghahi Valley was the leaf, accounting for 34% of usage, which aligns with findings by Zeb et al. (2022) and Sajid et al. (2023). In terms of mode of preparation, 45% of recipes were decoctions, followed by 25% direct use, 18% crushing, and 12% dermal application (Ullah and Shakir, 2023). Decoction was the dominant preparation method, as also observed by Ali et al. (2024). A Rapid Vulnerability Assessment (RVA) showed that 5 plant species were highly vulnerable, while 57 species were moderately vulnerable. This reflects the growing pressure on medicinal plants due to environmental and anthropogenic threats (Ullah et al., 2018d, 2019b). Field observations and interviews with locals revealed that several medicinal plant species are traded in local markets, such as Ajuga bracteosa, Cedrus deodara, Acacia modesta, Acacia nilotica, Mallotus philippensis, Olea ferruginea, Morus nigra, Quercus incana, Zizyphus jujube, and Zizyphus oxyphylla. Local wholesalers coordinate with collectors who gather plants for resale to retailers (Ullah et al., 2019d). The main threats to plant biodiversity in the study area include deforestation, overgrazing, agricultural expansion, road construction, and unregulated harvesting. Other contributing factors are lack of education, poverty, absence of government legislation, and no reforestation efforts. Livestock grazing, particularly by sheep, goats, and cattle, is prevalent and contributes significantly to habitat degradation. As noted by Asif et al. (2025) and Irshad et al. (2025), overgrazing and timber extraction are major threats to valuable medicinal flora across northern Pakistan (Zeb et al., 2022).

Conclusion

The present study concludes that Ghahi Valley harbors a rich diversity of ethnomedicinal plants, which play a vital role in the traditional healthcare system of the local community. Elderly individuals retain significant ethnobotanical knowledge, while the younger generation shows a growing reliance on allopathic medicine. A wide range of plant species, predominantly herbs, are used to treat ailments such as gastrointestinal disorders, respiratory infections, malaria, jaundice, hepatitis, and diabetes. Leaves were identified as the most commonly used plant part, with decoction being the preferred method of preparation. Among the medicinal formulations, mono-herbal recipes were more frequently reported than poly-herbal ones. Carminative and hepatitis treatments were the most cited, with Morus nigra ranked highest in preference (Ullah et al., 2018). The highest Informant Consensus Factor (ICF) value of 1.0 was recorded for antimalarial and spine-related uses, while Mentha longifolia and Foeniculum vulgare showed the highest fidelity level (FL= 75) for carminative and hepatitis treatments, respectively. The conservation survey revealed that out of 62 plant species, 5 were highly vulnerable and 57 moderately vulnerable due to anthropogenic pressures such as overgrazing, overcutting, and unsustainable harvesting practices. The extended winter season exacerbates plant depletion, as locals heavily depend on biomass for fuel (Ullah et al., 2018e). These findings emphasize the strong cultural relationship between people and plant resources and highlight the urgent need for awareness, legislation, and conservation strategies to ensure the sustainable use of ethnomedicinal flora in the region.

Acknowledgments

I am sincerely appreciative of my mother, Bibi, whose indigenous experience and lifelong practice with medicines have been the cornerstone of this work. Her guidance and passion for saving ethnobotanical traditions motivated and directed this research. Her input made this possible.

Novelty Statement

This study provides the first thorough ethnobotanical record of the use of medicinal plants in Pakistan’s Ghahi Valley. It documents not only plant uses but also local viewpoints on conservation, preparation methods, and dosages, showcasing priceless traditional knowledge that has been passed down through the generations. The research gains scientific rigor when preference ranking, fidelity level, and Informant Consensus Factor (ICF) are included. The results also point to important environmental and socioeconomic risks, offering crucial information for upcoming conservation initiatives and sustainable use.

Author’s Contribution

Research was carried out, and the manuscript was written by Shakir Ullah. Lubna Shakir: Helped create graphs and conduct statistical analysis. Sanam Asif: Helped write the manuscript.

Generative AI and AI-assisted technology statement

During the preparation of this work, no generative artificial intelligence (AI) or AI-assisted technologies were used in the writing, editing, data analysis, or figure generation. All content was produced entirely by the authors.

Conflict of interest

There is no conflict of interest, according to the authors.

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Ullah, S., Shakir, L., Sohail, M., Noreen, A. and Aziz, L., 2025a. Control of cotton leaf worm in Solanum nigrum L. at District Swat under semi-field conditions. Pak. J. Weed Sci. Res., 31(1): 56–65.

Ullah, S., Shakir, L., Subhan, G. and Sohail, M., 2023. Different soybean varieties are affected by irrigation in Mardan, Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan. Pak. J. Weed Sci. Res., 29(4): 229–237.

Ullah, S., Shakir, L., Subhan, G., Sohail, M., Bilqees, R., Khan, F., Gulzar, U., Ali, S., Ullah, Z. and Ali, S., 2024. Phytodiversity and conservation assessment of ethnobotanically significant flora in Khall Hagram Dara, Lower Dir, Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan. Plant Prot., 8(1): 143–162. https://doi.org/10.33804/pp.008.01.5084

Ullah, S., Sohail, M., Niaz, K., Khan, S. and Khattak, M., 2018. Phytochemistry and antibacterial activity of Convolvulus arvensis Linn against Escherichia coli. J. Chem. Biol. Phys. Sci., 8(4): 2249–1929. https://doi.org/10.24214/jcbps.B.8.4.89204

Ullah, S., Sohil, M., Khattak, M., Ihsan, M. and Begum, L., 2019d. List of some selected pteridophytes from Maidan Valley of Dir Lower, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan. Int. J. Hortic. Food Sci., 1(2): 15–22. https://doi.org/10.33545/26631067.2019.v1.i2a.24

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