Research Article

Ethnobotanical Knowledge and Therapeutic Uses of Ormenis mixta and Citrus limon in the Taza Region of Morocco

Hajar Kodad1*, Oussama Chauiyakh2, Hammadi El Farissi3, Safae El Aammouri4, Smail Amalich5, Malika Tiskar6, Sana El Moutaouakil1 and El Mahjoub Aouane1

1Natural Resources and Sustainable Development Laboratory, Faculty of Sciences, Ibn Tofail University; 2 Mohammed V University in Rabat, Higher School of Technology, Materials, Energy and Acoustics Team; 3Chemical Engineering for Resources Valorization Group -UAE/L01FST, Faculty of Sciences and Technology Abdelmalek Essaadi University, Tangier 90002, Morocco.; 4Plant, Animal, and Agro-Industry Production Laboratory, Faculty of Sciences, Ibn Tofail University; 5Laboratory of Phytochemistry, National Agency of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants-Taounate; 6Laboratory of Organic Chemistry, Catalysis and Environment, Faculty of Sciences, Ibn Tofail University..

Received | Aug 15, 2025; Accepted | Sep 24, 2025; Published | December 26, 2025

*Correspondence | Hajar Kodad; Natural Resources and Sustainable Development Laboratory, Faculty of Sciences, Ibn Tofail University, PB 133-14050, Kenitra, Morocco; Email: [email protected]

Citation |Kodad, H., O. Chauiyakh, H.El Farissi, S.El Aammouri, S.Amalich, M.Tiskar, S.El Moutaouakil and EM.Aouane. 2025. Ethnobotanical knowledge and therapeutic uses of Ormenis mixta and Citrus limon in the Taza region of Morocco. Sarhad Journal of Agriculture, 41(5): 195-209.

DOI | https://dx.doi.org/10.17582/journal.sja/2025/41.5.195.209

Keywords | Ethnobotany, Medicinal plants, Traditional medicine, Ormenis mixta, Citrus limon, Morocco.

Copyright: 2025 by the authors. Licensee ResearchersLinks Ltd, England, UK.

This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

Introduction

Ethnobotany, a discipline at the interface of the natural and social sciences, studies the complex relationships between human societies and plants, documenting their medicinal, cultural, and economic uses (Sihombing and Nugraha, 2025). In regions like Morocco, where floristic biodiversity is exceptional and traditional knowledge deeply rooted, this approach is crucial for the preservation of biocultural heritage and the development of modern therapeutic applications (Lahyaoui et al., 2025). Morocco, characterised by remarkable ecological diversity, including the Atlas and Rif massifs, the arid Saharan zones, and the Mediterranean and Atlantic coastlines, has more than 4,200 plant species, of which approximately 600 are endemic (Chauiyakh et al., 2022b). This floristic richness, recognised as one of the most important in the Mediterranean basin (Chauiyakh et al., 2022a), constitutes a reservoir of resources for traditional medicine but also for the pharmaceutical, cosmetic and agri-food industries (Cherrat et al., 2024). Traditional Moroccan medicine, or Tibb al-’Adwiya, is based on empirical knowledge transmitted orally for centuries, particularly in rural areas where access to modern healthcare remains limited (Lefrioui et al., 2024). Approximately 80% of the Moroccan population would resort to medicinal plants for primary care, highlighting their socio-economic and cultural importance. However, this oral transmission weakens the sustainability of knowledge, particularly in the face of urbanisation and changing lifestyles (Ninich et al., 2024). Recent studies have also documented the use of traditional plants in managing febrile illnesses in urban areas such as Casablanca (Radi et al., 2022), demonstrating the persistence of ethnomedicinal practices across diverse ecological and social contexts. Among the most used plants are Ormenis mixta (L.) Dumort. (Asteraceae), commonly called Tihoudrine or Moroccan chamomile, and Citrus limon (L.) Osbeck (Rutaceae), the lemon tree. These species perfectly embody the link between biodiversity and traditional knowledge: Ormenis mixta is renowned for its anti-inflammatory, digestive and sedative properties (Farid et al., 2024; Radi et al., 2022). Its traditional uses include the treatment of gastrointestinal disorders and dermatological conditions (Elouaddari et al., 2019; Idm’hand et al., 2022). Recent pharmacological studies have confirmed its antioxidant and antimicrobial activities, attributed to its phenolic compounds and essential oils (Kamari et al., 2025). Citrus limon, meanwhile, is widely exploited for its antiseptic, antimicrobial and digestive virtues (Boutaj, 2024). Its zest, rich in limonene and flavonoids, presents demonstrated pharmacological activities against respiratory infections and metabolic disorders (Posadino et al., 2024; Purba and Suswati, 2025).

This research focuses on the Taza region, an area at the crossroads of diverse ecosystems and cultural influences, in order to: Document traditional uses of Ormenis mixta and Citrus limon in medicinal, culinary and ritual practices, using standardised ethnobotanical methods (semi-structured questionnaires and interviews with healers and herbalists). Analyse the intergenerational dynamics of knowledge by evaluating the potential erosion of knowledge among younger generations (Sule and Hidayat, 2025). Scientifically validate traditional uses through a systematic review of available pharmacological data, identifying bioactive molecules responsible for alleged therapeutic effects. This study contributes to enriching Moroccan ethnobotanical databases, which remain fragmentary in certain regions. It supports the in-situ conservation of species threatened by overcollection and climate change. It also opens avenues for pharmaceutical research by targeting underexploited active principles. Therefore, this work establishes a bridge between local knowledge and modern science, with a view to the sustainable valorization of Moroccan natural resources.

Materials and Methods

Study area

The study was conducted in the city of Taza, located in northeastern Morocco, at the junction between the eastern Rif and the Middle Atlas (Figure 1). This strategic region forms a unique biogeographical corridor between Mediterranean and Atlas influences, creating a mosaic of ecosystems conducive to diversified medicinal flora (Bencheikh et al., 2024). Taza region presents remarkable plant diversity, with more than 800 species recorded, of which nearly 15% are endemic (Chauiyakh et al., 2023).

 

Origin and selection of studied plants

The specimens of Ormenis mixta and Citrus limon (Figure 2) analysed in this study were systematically collected in the Taza region at 34°43’15”N 4°02’23”W (altitude of 1,324 m), an area recognised as a centre of excellence for traditional Moroccan phytotherapy. The plant materials used in this research were taxonomically validated by Professor Zidane, a botanist at the Faculty of Sciences, Ibn Tofail University, Kenitra/Morocco. A voucher was deposited in the Herbarium of the Department of Biology, Faculty of Sciences-Kenitra, under number 82/2025 for C. limon and 83/2025 for O. mixta.

 

The choice of these two species is based on regional ethnopharmacological importance: O. mixta is traditionally used for digestive disorders, and C. limon is used by the population for preparations against respiratory ailments. Availability and accessibility: Presence in 3 key ecological strata of Taza (forest, cultivated area, and riparian forest). Identified research gaps: Only 2 specific studies on O. mixta from Taza. Economic valorisation potential: Growing demand in national markets.

Sampling

The sampling within the framework of this ethnobotanical study was developed according to internationally recognised methodological standards, relying mainly on the recommendations of Albuquerque et al. (2014), who insist on the need to choose a relevant and representative sample for the analysis of traditional knowledge related to the use of medicinal plants. To achieve this objective, the reasoned sampling strategy, or purposive sampling, was privileged in order to identify key informants with specialised knowledge, often transmitted orally within rural communities (Albuquerque et al., 2014). This ethnobotanical survey was conducted in June and July 2024, which is the harvest period for most aromatic and medicinal plants after flowering for therapeutic use. In this study, 120 participants were interviewed; these respondents represent the number of people who have an interest in using these two plants in phytotherapy in this region. They agreed to answer our questions, unlike another category of people who refused to participate in this ethnobotanical survey for personal reasons. A purposive sampling strategy was adopted to identify key informants such as herbalists, traditional healers, and elders, who play a central role in preserving and transmitting plant-based knowledge. This approach ensured that the collected information was both relevant and representative.

Data collection relied on structured interviews guided by a standardized questionnaire, pre-tested for clarity and reliability (Radi et al., 2024). The questionnaire was divided into four sections: sociodemographic profiles of participants, therapeutic uses of plants, methods of preparation and dosage, and the modes of transmission of ethnobotanical knowledge within communities.

To strengthen the scientific analysis, quantitative indices were incorporated. The Cultural Importance Index (CI) measured the relative value of each plant, the Use Value (UV) reflected the versatility of species across multiple uses, and the Fidelity Level (FL) assessed consensus regarding specific therapeutic indications. Together, these metrics provided a robust evaluation of both plant significance and reliability of reported practices.

For each recorded species, variables included plant parts used, preparation methods, therapeutic contexts, and frequency of use, along with cultural aspects such as rituals and intergenerational transfer. This integrative approach not only documents contemporary ethnobotanical practices in Taza but also highlights the cultural dynamics shaping their evolution in response to social and environmental changes.

Ethical considerations and consent of participants

Ethics Committee approval for this research was secured from the Biology Department at Ibn Tofail University. Initially, informed oral agreement was obtained in the field, commencing at the community level and thereafter on an individual basis before to each interview. Participants were apprised that the study was exclusively academic and devoid of any commercial intent. Their involvement was completely voluntary, and they had the right to withdraw or request the deletion of their information at any moment. The responders explicitly consented to the disclosure of specific personal data in this publication.

Statistical analyses

Data processing was performed using SPSS software for Windows (Statistical Package for the Social Sciences, version 25). The analyses focused on: Descriptive statistics: Calculation of frequencies and percentages for qualitative variables. Determination of means and standard deviations for quantitative variables for inferential analyses: The Chi-square test (x²) was applied to evaluate associations between different categorical variables; the statistical significance threshold was set at p ≤ 0.05.

Results and Discussion

The data from our ethnobotanical survey are presented as relative frequencies (percentages) and absolute frequencies (number of respondents). An important methodological particularity should be noted: participants could provide several responses simultaneously for the same question, thus reflecting the complexity of traditional uses. This multidimensional approach explains why the sum of percentages may exceed 100% for certain variables, since a single informant can be counted in several usage categories.

Distribution of target population

In this study, we surveyed 39 men, of whom 25 are herbalists who sell medicinal plants for phytotherapy, and 81 women, who are all consumers of these two plants. In total, the number of consumers in this survey is 95 people. Figure 3 presents the distribution of people who participated in this survey according to sex (male or female) and status (herbalist or consumer).

 

To ensure that the survey targets a heterogeneous population, the surveyed people were from different age groups and categories. This study targeted young people from the age of 20, single and married, as well as elderly people up to the age of 78 (Figure 4). Population heterogeneity is crucial for ensuring reliable results, as differences in age groups, sex, and status can lead to varied findings in ethnobotanical studies.

 

 

Therapeutic use and frequency of use of Ormenis mixta and Citrus limon

Analysis of structured interviews revealed trends concerning the use of Ormenis mixta and Citrus limon for medicinal purposes (Figure 5).

The plant Ormenis mixta is used by 100% of respondents to relieve digestive disorders, 87.5% to treat skin problems and anxiety problems and 2.5% to treat respiratory diseases. Concerning Citrus limon, this plant is not used for the treatment of digestive system disorders (0%); however, it is very widespread in phytotherapy for respiratory ailments (92.5%), followed by skin diseases (45%) and finally for the treatment of insomnia by a proportion of 7.5% of the population. For spiritual purification, we found that Ormenis mixta is used by 40% of respondents, and Citrus limon plays a minor role in this field, with 15% of participants integrating it into certain domestic practices. Several surveyed people declared that they use these two plants in other medicinal practices, such as 12% of respondents using Ormenis mixta for other varied applications, notably in infusion to strengthen immunity. And 10% declare using Citrus limon for various uses, such as indoor air purification or hair care.

These results highlight the diversity of applications of these two plants, with a marked prevalence of Ormenis mixta for digestive disorders and anxiety, while Citrus limon is mainly used for respiratory ailments.The results of our study confirm and enrich existing knowledge about the traditional uses of Ormenis mixta and Citrus limon. The specialisation of O. mixta in treating digestive disorders (100% of respondents) and anxiety (87.5%) joins previous observations while revealing higher usage frequencies than those reported in other regions of Morocco (Kamari et al., 2025). The well-documented antispasmodic and sedative properties of this plant scientifically explain these uses. Similarly, the predominance of C. limon for respiratory ailments (92.5%) corroborates literature data (Posadino et al., 2025), based on its richness in vitamin C and limonene with immunostimulant effects (Kostyuk and Prytychenka, 2025; Posadino et al., 2024) and its antibacterial properties against respiratory pathogens (Mahjaf et al., 2024).

However, the total absence of digestive use of lemon in our sample contrasts with practices reported elsewhere (Vujčić Bok et al., 2022), suggesting local cultural specificities. The dermatological applications of both plants appear more marked in Taza, while the innovative use of lemon against insomnia (7.5%) and more frequent spiritual practices than elsewhere (40% for O. mixta) highlight regional particularities deserving further investigation. These results underline both the universality of certain medicinal uses and the importance of local contexts in the evolution of ethnopharmacological practices.

Other previous studies show that citrus fruits such as lemon exhibit a wide range of therapeutic effects due to their richness in flavonoids, phenolic acids, and essential oils. Their antioxidant potential is particularly high in the peels, where compounds such as hesperidin, nobiletin, quercetin, and eriocitrin stabilise free radicals and surpass edible parts in terms of activity (Singh et al., 2020; Zahr et al., 2023). Beyond their antioxidant effects, citrus peels and juices exhibit strong antibacterial and antifungal properties: polymethoxylated flavonoids like nobiletin and tangeretin disrupt bacterial membranes (Yao et al., 2012), hesperidin and ferulic acid inhibit strains of Staphylococcus and Bacillus (Liang et al., 2023), while orange and lemon extracts act against Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria as well as fungi, notably Candida albicans and Aspergillus species (Bashir et al., 2020; Shehata et al., 2021). Citrus essential oils, dominated by limonene, further inhibit foodborne pathogens such as Listeria monocytogenes and Salmonella (Zahr et al., 2023). Their anticancer activity has also been demonstrated: hesperetin and naringenin trigger apoptosis via the p53 and caspase pathways (Alshatwi et al., 2013), while eriocitrin from lemon induces ROS-mediated apoptosis in breast and liver cancer cells (Yuan et al., 2022). Moreover, the essential oils of C. sinensis and C. limon are cytotoxic against various human cancer cell lines and inhibit angiogenesis and metastasis (Zahr et al., 2023). Clinical studies confirm these effects, showing that daily consumption of orange juice increases the antioxidant capacity of plasma (Constans et al., 2015), that citrus juices modulate the composition of the gut microbiota (Brasili et al., 2019), that lemon juice treats oral candidiasis in HIV-infected patients, and that D-limonene accumulates in breast tissues, reducing tumour proliferation without major toxicity (Zahr et al., 2023). Epidemiological data also associate high citrus consumption with a reduced risk of mouth and pharynx cancers (Cirmi et al., 2017).

Studies have shown that biological extracts of O. mixta have long been used in traditional medicine for circulatory disorders such as hypo- and hypertension and blood sugar regulation, for digestive problems including stomach pain, diarrhea, intestinal gas, and constipation, as well as for skin care in the treatment of burns, wounds, eczema, and for cosmetic purposes (Elouaddari et al., 2019). They are also recommended as anxiolytics, helping to rebalance the central nervous system and relieve nervous depressions, liver and stomach weaknesses, as well as colitis caused by colibacillus (Elouaddari et al., 2019). their richness in monoterpenes and sesquiterpenes explains much of their biological activity (Tarik et al., 2014). Experimentally, the biological extracts of O. mixta have demonstrated powerful antibacterial effects against Escherichia coli, Bacillus subtilis, Staphylococcus aureus, and Micrococcus luteus, as well as antifungal activity against Penicillium parasiticus, Aspergillus niger, and Trametes pini; Additional antimicrobial studies have confirmed significant activity against Citrobacter freundii, Enterococcus faecalis, Listeria monocytogenes, and Klebsiella pneumoniae (Elouaddari et al., 2019; Kamari et al., 2025). The combination of fatty acids, such as propionic acid, with O. mixta oil enhanced the antifungal activity, while the coumarins isolated from its roots (corfin and 3’-hydroxycorfin) showed strong inhibition of the rice blast fungus Pyricularia grisea (Elouaddari et al., 2019). Cytotoxic assays revealed that methanolic extracts exhibit moderate activity against human cervical cancer cell lines SiHa and HeLa, likely due to bioactive compounds with anti-growth potential (Merghoub et al., 2009). Moreover, given its medicinal and aromatic value, micropropagation protocols have been developed for in vitro germination and regeneration, while variations in yield and chemical composition between leaves and flowers highlight the importance of optimized harvesting (Anass et al., 2015; Harras and Ahmed, 2014).

 

Plant parts used

The results of our study concerning the parts used by Ormenis mixta and Citrus limon present both similarities and differences with scientific literature data (Figure 6). For O. mixta, the predominance of flowers (75% in medicinal preparations) (Benkhaira et al., 2021), who report the use of flower heads in 68% of cases in Morocco, mainly for digestive infusions. However, our study reveals more frequent use of leaves (47.5%) compared to 35% documented by Idm’hand et al. (2022), particularly for dermatological applications (Idm’hand et al., 2022). The use of the whole plant (17.5%) in purification rituals is also more marked than elsewhere, perhaps reflecting traditional practices specific to the Taza region.

Concerning C. limon, the preference for juice (90%) is consistent with the work of Badiche-El Hilali al. (2024), who emphasise its majority use in various cultures for its antiseptic and vitamin properties (Badiche-El Hilali et al., 2024). The use of zest (27.5%) is, however, less widespread in our sample than in certain studies, which could be explained by lesser transmission of knowledge relating to the use of peels in the studied region (Meryem et al., 2023). The low use of other parts of the plant (leaves, flowers) corresponds to general observations, although certain studies report more frequent use of leaves in subtropical regions (15–20% vs. less than 5% in our sample). These variations could reflect both differences in the availability of plant parts according to the seasons and cultural specificities in preparation practices. These results indicate that the most used plant parts are those that concentrate the most sought-after active principles, such as Ormenis mixta flowers rich in flavonoids and Citrus limon juice rich in vitamin C and antioxidants.

Preparation methods

The preparation methods of Ormenis mixta and Citrus limon vary according to treated ailments and local traditions. The Figure 7 below illustrates the main methods used by respondents.

 

Our results reveal marked differences in preparation methods between Ormenis mixta and Citrus limon, reflecting empirical adaptation to the pharmacological properties of each plant. For O. mixta, infusion (75%) dominates, optimising extraction of digestive and sedative compounds. This method allows effective extraction of active principles, notably flavonoids and essential oils, and it is easy to prepare and widely integrated into medicinal and daily habits, while poultice (60%) is privileged for anti-inflammatory skin applications. Conversely, C. limon is mainly consumed as juice mixed with honey (92.5%); this juice is very consumed because honeyed lemon acts as a natural flavour enhancer, a traditional synergy fully exploiting its antibacterial and immunostimulant properties against respiratory infections. The more moderate popularity of infusion for C. limon (45%) could be explained by thermal degradation of vitamin C, while poultice (25%) finds more limited application in dermatological care. Decoction, marginal for both plants (10% for O. mixta), seems reserved for specific uses requiring more advanced extraction requiring higher concentrations of active ingredients.

These results, globally consistent with scientific literature, nevertheless highlight certain local particularities, such as exceptionally high use of honey-lemon mixture, suggesting cultural optimisation of therapeutic practices. The low adoption of decoction contrasts with certain studies, possibly due to loss of volatile compounds or preference for faster preparations. These observations underline the importance of both biochemical factors (preservation of active principles) and cultural factors (transmission of knowledge) in the choice of preparation methods in traditional medicine.

 

Administered dose

The graph (Figure 8) illustrates usage doses for two plants, Ormenis mixta and Citrus limon, according to different administration modalities. Data are expressed as percentages and represent responses from people interviewed about their mode of use of these plants.

First, regarding volume used, results show that 87.5% of people prefer to use Citrus limon as half a tea glass, while only 46.67% adopt this same format for Ormenis mixta. Conversely, for a whole tea glass (50 to 100 mL), 34.17% of participants declare using Ormenis mixta, against a higher percentage for Citrus limon (87.5%). When it comes to small quantities, such as a large spoon or small spoon, both plants are much less used, with rates below 15%.

The influence of concentration on usage habits is also notable. High concentration is privileged for Ormenis mixta (65.83%), while low concentration is more often adopted for Citrus limon (43.33%, against 34.17% for Ormenis mixta). This suggests that users perceive Ormenis mixta as more effective or better adapted in a more concentrated form.

Finally, the effect of usage frequency reveals intriguing trends. Administration once a day is most common for both plants (59.17% for Ormenis mixta and 56.67% for Citrus limon). However, when usage frequency increases to twice a day, 34.17% of people declare using Citrus limon, while only 21.67% consume Ormenis mixta. For three-times-a-day use, rates decrease further, reaching 19.17% for Ormenis mixta and only 9.17% for Citrus limon.

In conclusion, the survey shows that Citrus limon is mainly used as half a tea glass, while Ormenis mixta is consumed more in concentrated form. Moreover, single daily use is most widespread for both plants, while increased administration frequency is less common. These results highlight consumer habits and preferences regarding the use of these plants in their daily life.

Cultural and spiritual importance

In addition to their medicinal uses, Ormenis mixta and Citrus limon possess strong cultural and spiritual significance. These plants are integrated into various rituals and traditional practices, emphasising their role within local communities.

Our results (Table 1) reveal that in Taza, Ormenis mixta plays a predominant spiritual role, with 40% of respondents using it in purification rituals by fumigation – a proportion superior to the 30–35% reported by Benkhaira et al. (2021) for other Moroccan regions – while its incorporation into religious ceremonies (15%) also exceeds observations of Lahyaoui et al. (2025) in Berber environments (~10%) (Benkhaira et al., 2021; Lahyaoui et al., 2025). This increased prevalence could reflect more dynamic cultural transmission or particular valorisation of its purifying properties, corroborated by recent phytochemical analyses highlighting its active volatile compounds. For Citrus limon, its ritual use in Taza is distinguished by two aspects: strong integration into domestic cleaning practices, and an unprecedented role in festive offerings (20%), not documented elsewhere, where it symbolises prosperity and conviviality. These gaps suggest local adaptation of knowledge, potentially influenced by synergies between Arab and Amazigh traditions, while confirming the common Mediterranean base of purifying uses related to these plants. The combination of our data with existing literature thus underlines both the persistence of ancestral practices and the emergence of cultural innovations anchored in specific socio-ecological contexts.

 

Table 1: Cultural and spiritual importance of plants

Plant	Cultural Practice	Percentage of respondents (%)
Ormenis mixta	Burned for spiritual purification	40%
Ormenis mixta	Used in religious rituals	15%
Citrus limon	Used in domestic cleaning rituals	30%
Citrus limon	Used in culinary offerings during festivals	20%

 

Knowledge transmission

The study also explored how ethnobotanical knowledge about Ormenis mixta and Citrus limon is transmitted from generation to generation. It appears that this knowledge is mainly shared orally, although other transmission channels exist as complements.

 

Table 2: Transmission of ethnobotanical knowledge

Transmission method	Percentage of respondents (%)
Oral transmission (family)	75%
Community elders (healers)	50%
Written sources (books/manuals)	10%
Formal education (courses)	5%

 

Our results (Table 2) reveal that 75% of respondents in Taza acquired their knowledge about Ormenis mixta and Citrus limon through family oral transmission, a figure superior to the 60–65% reported by Lahyaoui et al. (2025) in the High Atlas, perhaps reflecting a stronger anchoring of local traditions (Lahyaoui et al., 2025). Healers and elders play a key role (50%), a proportion similar to observations of Hachi et al. (2022) in a rural Moroccan environment, confirming their status as knowledge guardians (Hachi et al., 2022). Conversely, learning through written sources (10%) or formal education (5%) remains marginal, contrary to regions like India, where certain states integrate traditional medicine into school curricula (Shi et al., 2021). This dependence on orality, while weakening long-term preservation, allows dynamic adaptation of knowledge to local needs, as shown by the work of Ninich et al. (2022) on the resilience of family practices (Ninich et al., 2022). The low institutionalisation of this knowledge in Morocco contrasts with countries like China, where traditional medicine has been formalised for decades, highlighting the urgency of documentation programmes, such as those initiated by the National Institute of Aromatic and Medicinal Plants (INPAM). This data highlights a paradox: living but vulnerable intergenerational transmission facing urbanisation, requiring hybrid strategies (orality + digital archiving) to safeguard this heritage.

Statistical analyses

Usage Status of Ormenis mixta and Citrus limon in Taza

Statistical analysis (Table 3) reveals a significant association between gender and status (p = 0.00), highlighting an extremely asymmetric distribution: all individuals identified as herbalists are male (24 men, 0 women), while all females are consumers (81 women, 0 herbalists). This distribution suggests a strong gender influence on status within this sample, highlighting those men have a significantly higher probability of exercising as herbalists, while women are exclusively present in the consumer role. This significant disparity requires in-depth analysis, particularly by examining social, cultural or structural factors that could justify it.

 

Table 3: Distribution of status (herbalist vs consumer) by gender with significance test (n=120)

Status	P value
	Herbalist	Consumer
Gender	Man	24	15	0.00
	Woman	0	81	0.00

 

Variations in dosage practices of Ormenis mixta: influence of age and mode of administration

This analysis highlights a significant relationship between user age and dosological patterns of Ormenis mixta in the Taza region. Results show a predominance of the standard dose (tea glass) among 30-60-year-olds, with particularly marked usage peaks among 30-35-year-olds and 55-60-year-olds. Young adults (20-25 years) and forty-year-olds rather favour half-glasses, while a remarkable concentration of large spoon usage is observed specifically among 45-50-year-olds (Table 4). These differentiated usage patterns according to age present both similarities and gaps with data reported in other regions of Morocco. While certain studies like that of Choneva et al. (2025) noted relative standardisation of doses (Choneva et al., 2025), our results reveal local particularities, notably the exclusive association of a large spoon with the 45-50 age group.

 

Table 4: Association between age group and type of dose used in consumption of O. mixta

Age		Dose of O. mixta				P value
		Tea glass	Half tea glass	Large spoon	Small spoon
[20-25]	Effectif	3	6	0	0	0.000
[25-30]	Effectif	0	3	0	3
[30-35]	Effectif	9	3	6	0
[35-40]	Effectif	3	9	3	0
[40-45]	Effectif	6	3	0	0
[45-50]	Effectif	0	12	0	3
[50-55]	Effectif	3	3	0	0
[55-60]	Effectif	6	9	3	0
[60-65]	Effectif	0	0	0	3
[65-70]	Effectif	6	3	3	0
[70-75]	Effectif	3	3	0	0
[75-80]	Effectif	0	0	3	0

 

Table 5: Daily frequency of doses according to age

Age	Dose/Day of O. mixta				P value
		1/day	2/day	3/day	0.00
[20-25]	Effectif	9	0	0
[25-30]	Effectif	3	0	3
[30-35]	Effectif	12	0	6
[35-40]	Effectif	12	0	3
[40-45]	Effectif	9	0	0
[45-50]	Effectif	3	9	3
[50-55]	Effectif	3	3	0
[55-60]	Effectif	6	9	3
[60-65]	Effectif	0	0	3
[65-70]	Effectif	9	0	3
[70-75]	Effectif	3	3	0
[75-80]	Effectif	0	0	3

 

These dosological variations could reflect both specific therapeutic needs at certain life periods and preparation traditions specific to the Taza region. All these observations underline the importance of considering demographic and cultural factors in the study of traditional medicinal practices, while highlighting the need to more systematically document this local knowledge for better understanding of their therapeutic rationality.

This Table 5 reveals distinct dosological patterns for Ormenis mixta according to age, with predominantly single administration among 30-40 year-olds (12 cases), double among 45-60 year-olds (9 cases) and triple at age extremes (25-35 years and >60 years). These results, although partially aligned with Mekonnen et al. (2022) concerning dose increase with age, diverge from observations of Mekonnen et al. (2022) on dosological uniformity, thus highlighting the influence of regional specificities (Mekonnen et al., 2022). Intensive use among young adults and seniors could be explained by acute therapeutic needs or local traditions (Korotkiy and Skornyakova, 2025). These dosological variations, significantly correlated with age (p < 0.05), highlight the importance of adapting therapeutic recommendations to demographic and cultural contexts, while underlining the need for complementary pharmacological studies to evaluate the impact of these differences on the efficacy and safety of O. mixta use.

 

Table 6: Distribution of doses according to mode of use (infusion vs poultice) and their statistical association

		Dose of O. mixta				P value
		Tea glass	Half tea glass	Large spoon	Small spoon
Infusion	Yes	33	36	12	9	0.055
	No	6	18	6	0
Poultice	Yes	27	39	9	0	0.000
	No	12	15	9	9

 

This analysis reveals significant differences in O. mixta dosological patterns according to administration mode (Table 6). For infusions, although association with administered quantities is not statistically significant (p=0.055), marked preference of consumers for tea glass (33 cases) and half-glass (36 cases) is observed, contrary to non-consumers who mainly use half-glass (18 cases). Conversely, poultice administration shows a highly significant association (p = 0.000) with specific doses; users systematically favour a glass and half-tea glass, while non-users present greater variability, including small spoon use (9 cases). These results partially corroborate observations of Mekonnen et al. (2022) concerning dose standardisation for external applications but diverge from those of Ninich et al. (2022), who did not report dosological differences according to administration mode (Mekonnen et al., 2022; Ninich et al., 2022). The clear distinction observed in our study, particularly for poultices, suggests the existence of well-established usage protocols for skin applications, probably linked to therapeutic efficacy considerations or specific local traditions. These results underline the importance of considering administration mode in the evaluation of traditional dosological practices.

 

Table 7: Association between frequency of daily doses and use of infusion or poultice

		Dose/Day of O. mixta			P value
		1/day	2/day	3/day
Infusion	Yes	54	15	21	0.286
	No	15	9	6
Poultice	Yes	42	24	9	0.000
	No	27	0	18

 

This Table 7 highlights notable differences in O. mixta administration patterns according to mode of use. While infusion frequency shows no significant correlation with usage status (p=0.286), revealing homogeneous distribution of daily intakes, poultice application conversely presents a highly significant association (p=0.000) with specific dosological patterns. Poultice users favour moderate administrations (1-2 times/day in 66 combined cases), while non-users mainly opt for increased frequency (3 times/day in 18 cases). These observations diverge from the conclusions of Elharas (2025), who did not report variations according to administration mode (Elharas, 2025). The specificity of dosological patterns for poultices could be explained by practical considerations (application time) or therapeutic ones (local action duration), as suggested by Chaachouay et al. (2019) in their analysis of traditional topical practices (Chaachouay et al., 2019). These results underline the importance of adapting dosological recommendations to administration mode in ethnopharmacological studies.

Variations in dosage practices of Citrus limon: influence of age and mode of administration

This analysis reveals a significant correlation (p<0.05) between age and Citrus limon dosage (Table 8), with a predominance of tea glass among 30-70-year-olds (15-18 cases) contrasting with more moderate use of half-glass at age extremes (20-30 years and >60 years, 3-9 cases). These variations probably reflect adaptations related to physiological needs, usage experience and local traditions, partially corroborating the work of Ninich et al. (2022) while presenting regional specificities distinct from the Mediterranean observations of Bencheikh et al. (2024) (Bencheikh et al., 2024; Ninich et al., 2022). The bell-shaped distribution of dosages suggests therapeutic rationality anchored in the cultural and demographic context of Taza.

 

Table 8: Variation of Citrus limon doses according to age

Age		Dose of Citrus limon		P value
		Tea glass	Half tea glass	0.00
[20-25]	Effectif	9	0
[25-30]	Effectif	0	6
[30-35]	Effectif	15	3
[35-40]	Effectif	15	0
[40-45]	Effectif	9	0
[45-50]	Effectif	12	3
[50-55]	Effectif	6	0
[55-60]	Effectif	18	0
[60-65]	Effectif	0	3
[65-70]	Effectif	12	0
[70-75]	Effectif	6	0
[75-80]	Effectif	3	0

 

Table 9: Association between age and daily frequency of citrus limon administration

Age		Dose/Day of Citrus limon			P value
		1/day	2/day	3/day
[20-25]	Effectif	3	6	0	0.000
[25-30]	Effectif	0	3	3
[30-35]	Effectif	3	9	6
[35-40]	Effectif	6	6	3
[40-45]	Effectif	6	3	0
[45-50]	Effectif	12	0	3
[50-55]	Effectif	6	0	0
[55-60]	Effectif	15	3	0
[60-65]	Effectif	3	0	0
[65-70]	Effectif	9	3	0
[70-75]	Effectif	3	3	0
[75-80]	Effectif	0	3	0

 

This study highlights a significant relationship (p<0.05) between age and frequency of Citrus limon administration (Table 9), revealing distinct dosological patterns according to age groups. Subjects aged 45 to 70 years mainly favour single daily intake (peaking at 15 cases among 55–60-year-olds), while young adults (20-40 years) rather opt for two daily intakes. Three-times-daily administration, although less frequent, is mainly observed among 25-35-year-olds, suggesting more intensive use in this age group. These dosological variations could reflect differences in therapeutic needs, tolerances, or perceptions of efficacy according to age, as also observed by Chaachouay et al. (2019) in their work on traditional medicinal practices (Chaachouay et al., 2019). These results underline the importance of considering demographic factors in the evaluation of dosological patterns in ethnopharmacology.

Analysis reveals notable differences in consumption patterns according to preparation type. For natural juice, no significant correlation is observed with ingested quantity (p=0.238), although a clear preference for a whole glass (96 cases) rather than a half-glass (15 cases) is noted. Conversely, “Juice/Honey” preparation shows significant association (p=0.049) with larger doses, where 99 out of 102 users systematically opt for a whole glass, against only 3 cases of half-glass among non-users. These results suggest that honey addition could influence dosological practices, possibly due to (1) better taste tolerance allowing larger doses, (2) specific therapeutic indications requiring standardised quantities, or (3) local traditions systematically associating this mixture with complete doses. The difference in statistical significance between both preparation types (p=0.238 vs p=0.049) underlines the importance of preparation mode in the evaluation of traditional dosological patterns (Table 10).

 

Table 10: Association between juice type and dose of Citrus limon used

Dose of Citrus limon			P value
		Tea glass		Half tea glass
Juice	Yes	96		15		0.238
	No	9		0
Juice/honey	Yes	99		12		0.049
	No	6		3

 

This Table 11 analyses the correlation between the daily frequency of Citrus limon consumption and two different consumption modes: simple juice (juice) and juice with honey (juice/honey). Both p-values (0.482) signal the absence of a statistically significant association between consumption modality (with or without honey) and administration frequency (1, 2 or 3 times per day). In other words, whether Citrus limon is consumed as simple juice or juice with honey, this has no impact on daily usage frequency. Furthermore, distribution is similar in both situations: the majority of participants consume juice once a day (60 cases), then twice a day (36 cases), while three-times-daily frequency remains less common (15 cases) and is found exclusively among consumers. Conversely, individuals who do not consume are in the minority and concentrate mainly on low frequencies. This uniformity of practices suggests that the preparation method does not affect users’ dosage patterns.

 

Table 11: Frequency of Citrus limon consumption according to preparation method

		Dose/Day of Citrus limon			P value
		1/day	2/day	3/day
Juice	Yes	60	36	15	0.482
	No	6	3	0
Juice/honey	Yes	60	36	15	0.482
	No	6	3	0

 

Conclusions and Recommendations

This ethnobotanical survey conducted with 120 informants in the Taza region highlights a robust and differentiated knowledge base around two key species. Ormenis mixta is primarily used for digestive disorders and anxiety, while Citrus limon is mainly associated with respiratory ailments; these uses are accompanied by distinct preparation preferences (infusion and poultice for O. mixta; juice, often combined with honey, for C. limon) and dosage patterns modulated by age. Beyond the therapeutic sphere, both plants hold a significant cultural and ritual place, and knowledge is mostly transmitted orally, highlighting both its vitality and vulnerability. These results converge with the literature while revealing local specificities and call for targeted pharmacological validations of regional ecotypes (chemical profiling, activity assays, safety studies), clinical trials comparing traditional preparations and standardised forms, as well as integrated conservation and valorisation strategies (sustainable cultivation, quality supply chains, digital archiving of knowledge). The limitations of the study-reasoned sampling, self-declarations, and geographical focus-call for multicentric and longitudinal work. Overall, the integration of local knowledge with modern methods opens promising perspectives for natural health and sustainable development, while contributing to the preservation of a threatened biocultural heritage.

Acknowledgements

We are more grateful to ANPMA National Agency for Medicinal and Aromatic Plants–Sahel Boutaher Taounante, Morocco, who gave me the golden opportunity to do this wonderful project, which also helped me in doing a lot of research and I come to know about so many new things. Secondly, I would also like to extend my gratitude to Dr. CHAOUCH Abdelaziz and Sir Madam. MEZIANE Touriya for providing me and support me with all the facility that was required.

Novelty Statement

This learns about will make a contribution to enriching Moroccan ethnobotanical databases, nonetheless fragmentary for positive regions. Supporting in situ conservation of these species, threatened through overcollection and local weather change.

Opening avenues for pharmaceutical research, with the aid of concentrated on underexploited lively principles. Therefore, this work targets to set up a bridge between nearby know-how and cutting-edge science, with a view to sustainable valorization of Moroccan herbal resources.

Authors’ Contribution

Hajar Kodad: Conceptualization and writing of this manuscript

Oussama Chauiyakh: methodology and Analysis

Safae El Aammouri: validation for research,

Hammadi El Farissi: investigation Malika Tiskar & Smail Amalich: helped in revision of the manuscript.

Sana El moutaouakil: helped in writing and revision of the manuscript.

El Mahjoub Aouane: supervision

Generative AI or AI assisted technology statement

The authors declare that they haven’t used generative AI.

Conflict of interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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