Seasonal Fluctuations in the Dietary Habits of Indian Crested Porcupine (Hystrix indica Kerr) in Pothwar Plateau, Pakistan
Ayesha Sheraz1, Tariq Mahmood1*, Muhammad Mushtaq1, Ahmed Junaid1, Shaista Andleeb2*, Unza Waqar1 and Muhammad Ali3
1Department of Zoology, Wildlife and Fisheries, Faculty of Sciences, Pir Mehr Ali Shah Arid Agriculture University Rawalpindi, Rawalpindi, Pakistan
2Key Laboratory of Urban Environment and Health, Ningbo Observation and Research Station, Institute of Urban Environment, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Xiamen, 361021, PR China.
3Department of Zoology, Faculty of Science, University of Baltistan, Gilgit, Pakistan
ABSTRACT
Understanding ecological traits, such as diet analysis of wildlife species, is crucial, especially when the species is categorized as a pest. One such important pest in the agroecosystem of Pakistan is the Indian crested porcupine (Hystrix indica Kerr), being a generalized herbivore, the species consumes both natural vegetation and cultivated plants. In the Pothwar Plateau, the species is widely distributed but information about its dietary preference is scanty. Therefore, in the current study, we investigated the diet composition of porcupine in the study area and examined how the season can impact their diet. We performed micro-histology using the faecal pellets collected from the field during fortnightly surveys in the study area. Reference plant samples were also collected from the study areas. The faecal pellets were analyzed in the laboratory using the technique of Micro-histology. Light microscopic slides were prepared and matched with reference samples for identification of the plant species consumed. Results revealed that Indian crested porcupine consumed a diverse range of at least twenty different wild and cultivated plant species. Among wild vegetation, khabbal (Cyonodon dactylon) and jujube (Ziziphus nummularia) were consumed frequently during all seasons of the year, however, wild jujube was the most frequent wild plant consumed during the summer and spring seasons. Among cultivated plants, chickpea Cicer arietinum and mustard Brassica campestris were favorites during summer while millet Agrostis nigricans and maize Zea mays were most frequently consumed during fall and winter. During winter, chickpeas were found to be the most consumed. At the same time, khabbal was consumed the most during autumn. These findings are significant in the context of seasonal variation in the dietary preference of Indian crested .
Article Information
Received 01 May 2024
Revised 05 November 2024
Accepted 15 November 2024
Available online 23 January 2025
(early access)
Published 27 December 2025
Authors’ Contribution
AS and TM designed the study. AS and AJ collected experimental research data and interpreted the results. AS, TM, MM, AJ, SA, MA, andUW assisted in experimental and statistical analysis. AS wrote the research article. MM supervised and revised the manuscript. All authors read and approved the manuscript.
Key words
Hystrix indica, Porcupine, Diet, Micro-histology, Seasonal fluctuations, Pest
DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.17582/journal.pjz/20240501125036
* Corresponding author: [email protected]
0030-9923/2026/0001-0291 $ 9.00/0
Copyright 2026 by the authors. Licensee Zoological Society of Pakistan.
This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Introduction
Rodents are a key mammalian group, and highly successful in many environments throughout the world. Over 40% of mammal species have been placed in the order Rodentia. The order Rodentia has 35 families and 534 genera with 2652 living species (ASM Mammal Diversity Database, 2023). The Indian crested porcupine Hystrix indica is one of the largest rodents included among a total of 29 species present across the globe. These are divided into two categories, old-world porcupines, and new-world porcupines (Yang et al., 2013). Old-world porcupines are terrestrial species and there are 11 species of old-world porcupines, all in one family, Hystricidae. Out of these 11, three species are native to Africa and the Mediterranean region, while the remaining eight species occur in Asia (Rovie-Ryan et al., 2017). In Pakistan, only one porcupine species is reported; the Indian crested porcupine (Ahmad and Chaudhry, 1977; Khan et al., 2000; Hafeez et al., 2012). This species is widely distributed and found in many areas of the country (Hafeez et al., 2012) including the Pothwar Plateau. The species is listed as the least concern (LC) by the IUCN red list of threatened species (Amori et al., 2021). The Indian crested porcupine is one of the largest rodents, recognized by its body hairs which are modified into sharp and easily removable spines called quills (Vishnugurubaran et al., 2021). It is a shy mammal species in nature. It digs deep burrows and is a nocturnal species (Gurung et al., 1996; Akram et al., 2017). The species is reported to have nomadic movements usually, and so it lives in a sub-home range temporarily unless finds a suitable mate (Sever and Mendelssohn, 1991).
The porcupine is considered generalized herbivore (Kelt, 2011; Lovari et al., 2017; Amori et al., 2021), and its diet usually comprises plant material like plant seeds, stem, fruit, and leaves, as they eat plants throughout the cropping cycle (Wyatt et al., 2022). According to studies, rodents consume and destroy food crops yearly that can feed around 200 million people (Stenseth et al., 2003). It is considered an agricultural pest because it damages many important cash crops (Arsalan, 2008; Hafeez et al., 2011; Lovari et al., 2017). In Pakistan, the Indian crested porcupine is recognized as a major vertebrate pest of economically important crops like groundnut Arachis hypogaea and maize (Greaves and Khan, 1978; Hafeez et al., 2011). Not only crops, they also feed on a variety of wild plants, grasses, vegetables, fruits, and flowering plants (Khan et al., 2007; Pervez, 2006; Hafeez et al., 2011). It causes huge damage to groundnut, maize, and sugarcane Saccharum officinarum in the country. It consumes important vegetables like potato Solanum tuberosum and onion Allium cepa (Khan et al., 2000; Hafeez et al., 2011).
According to previous studies, porcupines consume various foods as they are generalists and depend upon seasonal availability (Lovari et al., 2017). Due to the wide distribution and pest nature of the species, the dietary habits of Indian crested porcupine in different agroecological regions of the country need to be explored, for its effective management. Keeping in mind such a scenario, the current study aims to investigate the dietary habits of this porcupine species in the Pothwar Plateau.
Materials and Methods
Study area
The current study was conducted in the Pothwar Plateau, focusing on tehsil Talagang, (32° 55’ 47.03” N, 72° 24’ 56.99” E). The elevation of the area is 393m (Muhammad et al., 2023), the map of the study area is shown (Supplementary Fig. 1). The Pothwar Plateau comprises a total of 22,500 km2 area divided into four districts (Chakwal, Attock, Rawalpindi, and Jhelum). In the study area, the summer season is of long duration, while the winter season is dry and of short duration. July and August are the months of highest rainfall, the monsoon season, contributing to the average annual rainfall of 620 mm (Balouch et al., 2016). The mean annual temperature in the study area in summer is 35℃, while in winter it is 14℃. The study area is semiarid type and rainfall is the major source of irrigation for cultivation of the crops. The main crops cultivated in the Pothwar Plateau, during different seasons of the year, include groundnut, wheat (Triticum aestivum), maize, mustard, chickpea, etc. (Taslim et al., 2022). Summer-season crops are cultivated from May to October, while winter-season crops are cultivated from November to April (Balouch et al., 2016). Groundnut is an economically important crop in this region of Pakistan. Munawar et al. (2018) reported the lesser bandicoot rat (Bandicota bengalensis), Indian gerbil (Tatera indica), and short-tailed bandicoot rat (Nesokia indica) as major pests of this crop here. Along with other crops, Indian crested porcupine, being a pest, also damages groundnut in the study area (Taslim et al., 2022). The Pothwar Plateau includes subtropical scrub forest containing natural vegetation including mainly phulahi (Acacia modesta), kikar (Vachellia nilotica), khabbal grass amaltas (Cassia fistula), shisham/tahli or Indian rosewood (Dalbergia sissoo), jujube, dhrek (Melia azadarech), Eucalyptus sp., and others (Rehman et al., 2017).
Study design
The current study was conducted from June 2022 to July 2023. Field surveys for sample collection were carried out fortnightly. Four potential sampling sites were selected (Table I),, based on the criteria including the abundance of porcupine burrows, the degree of crop deterioration, and consultation with the local community and the staff of the provincial wildlife department, District Chakwal. The sites were visited for collection of fecal samples of the Indian crested porcupine. A total of 24 collection events in a year were made, with a total sample size of approximately 250. A special attempt was made to collect fresh fecal samples of the species from the field to maximize the accuracy of the results. The collected samples were analyzed in the laboratory using the technique of micro-histology by preparing light microscopic slides of the plant species recovered from the porcupine faecal samples. The slides were matched with those of reference slides to identify the plant species. For this purpose, the reference plant samples were also collected from the same selected sampling sites. The plant species consumed by porcupine were identified and the frequency of occurrence of each plant species was computed during analysis.
Collection of samples
Fortnightly visits were made to the selected sampling sites for the collection of faecal samples of porcupine. Each visit extended for one day, encompassing diverse subsites to discern the distribution pattern of porcupine burrows. During each visit, within these subsites, area searches were conducted to locate porcupine burrows, while fresh faecal pellets were collected. Area searches are a type of fieldwork methodology that is frequently used to collect data in wildlife and ecological research. Using this method, a predetermined study area is methodically covered to find, and document target fecal pellets. Notably, on each occasion, distinct piles of faecal pellets were gathered and carefully combined to ensure a representative sample. A total of 480 faecal samples of the species were collected during the study period, with the estimated collection of 20 fecal samples from each visit. Each sampling site was searched for collecting faecal samples of the species. When found in the field, each faecal sample was collected in self-sealing zip-lock polythene bags, along with all details of the site including the geographical coordinates, elevation, and habitat types.
Reference plant collection
A comprehensive collection of the potential reference plant species was made from the same selected sampling sites during each visit, encompassing approximately 20 plant species, including major cultivated crops and non-cultivated plants, carefully selected based on their deterioration status. The collected plants encompassed a diverse range of species, including maize, chickpea, Indian rosewood, pearl millet Pennisetum glaucum, jujube, wheat, groundnut, kikar, fig (Ficus carica), pea (Pisum sativum), barwa (Hordeum vulgare), leafless milk hedge (Euphorbia caducifolia), phulai, mustard green and several other non-cultivated plants indigenous to the area. The collection of plants was carried out following their seasonal availability, ensuring that different plant species were collected during different seasons.
Micro-histological studies
All collected faecal samples of porcupine were analyzed in the laboratory using the technique of microhistology following Williams (1962) and Ward (1970), with little modifications. We prepared two kinds of light microscopic slides for the identification of plant species recovered from the faecal samples of the porcupine; one was faecal material slide, while the other one was a reference plant material slide. For each faecal sample, at least two light microscopic slides were prepared. During analysis, faecal samples were dried first in the oven at 50 °C, overnight. The next day the dried faecal samples were ground into small pieces using a mortar and pestle. Then these ground pieces of faecal samples were homogenized using a homogenizer (ESB-500 Lab homogenizer) to grind smoothly and finely, for 5 min at 3.1 rpm. Then these samples were washed with tap water and again soaked in the solution mixture of glycerine, ethanol, and distilled water (1:1:1) overnight. The next day we drained the excess solution and added 70% alcohol for 20 min in a beaker. To achieve differentiation, the fragments were treated with a hematoxylin stain. Alcohol gradients (30%, 40%, 50%, 70%, 90%, and 100%) were used to prepare permanent mounts, using Canada balsam. The different light microscopic slides prepared were observed under a camera fitted light microscope (Zeiss 490980-0001-000 Axiolab 5 Upright Microscope) and compared with those of reference slides for identification of plant species consumed by the porcupine. The slides were photographed after comparison with the reference slides.
For preparing reference plant slides, the vegetative parts of plants were dried using plant press, after completely drying and flattening of plants they were ground by hand using mortar and pestle. The sample plant was converted into very fine powder form, after this the plant was soaked in the solution of glycerine, ethanol, and distilled water (1:1:1) overnight, then it was washed with water for about 5 min to remove the excess solution, then the washed plant mixture was homogenized using Vitric homogenizer (ESB-500 Lab homogenizer). The homogenized mixture was then again passed from water for a further five min.
Then, we took a cotton cloth and sieved the mixture, this removed all the excess water, the plant material that remained on the cotton cloth was then soaked in 10% sodium hypochlorite (NaOCl) for about 15 min, after which the plant material along with cotton cloth was shifted in 5% clorox and distilled water solution (1:4) for 20 to 30 min. Now to neutralize the basic effects that were caused by sodium hypochlorite, dilute acetic acid was added. Now for staining purposes, the plant material was transferred to the hematoxylin solution for about 10-15 min, to get the best results, the plant material was dehydrated using alcohol gradients (10%, 25%, 30%, 50%, 70%, 75%). The plant material was soaked in each gradient for about 20-30 min. Now for slide preparation, firstly we placed a drop of Canada balsam on a microscopic slide by using a syringe then with the help of a camel hairbrush we slightly placed the plant material over the slide, then again Canada balsam was added and placed the slide cover over it, gently putting pressure over the slide cover so that the material was spread evenly. We prepared all the microscopic reference slides.
Statistical analysis
The data were arranged in tabulated form in Excel sheets, descriptive statistics, such as means, standard deviation, and standard error, were calculated directly within Excel. The final comparative mean study was performed using two-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) in SPSS (George and Mallery, 2019).
Table I. Details of four major sampling sites selected for data collection in the Pothwar Plateau.
|
Site |
Name of site |
Latitude |
Longitude |
Elevations |
Habitat type |
|
1 |
Bilalabad |
N 32.94558 |
E 72.29131 |
446 m |
Cropland and natural vegetation |
|
2 |
Dhok Dali |
N 32.97052 |
E 72.31533 |
447 m |
Cropland |
|
3 |
Pira Fatehal |
N 32.90502 |
E 72.28306 |
453 m |
Cropland and natural vegetation |
|
4 |
Chowkhandi |
N 32.81482 |
E 72.34616 |
543 m |
Cropland and natural vegetation |
Results
Physical measurements of faecal samples
All faecal samples (480) collected from the field were transported to the laboratory for analysis. In the laboratory, the length, breadth, and weight of each faecal sample were measured using a digital Vernier caliper and weighing balance (Fig. 1). Mean weight of faecal samples was found to be 1.89 ± 0.03 g, the mean length being 30.35 ± 1.13 mm and mean breadth was 14.99 ± 0.67 mm.
Diet composition
Faecal analysis revealed that the diet of Indian crested porcupine comprised of at least 20 plant species, including both wild plants as well as cultivated crops (Table II, Supplementary Figs. 2-7) depicting wild vegetation. Leaves of Jujube were the most frequently consumed (23.22%) followed by khabbal grass (12.54%) while gum Arabic tree / Kikar was least consumed (3.06%). Similarly, among cultivated crops, the chickpea was most frequently consumed (18.5%) followed by wheat (13.62%) and millet (12.88%), whereas potato (Solanum tuberosum; 4.16%) was the least consumed.
Table II. Vegetation species consumed by the Indian crested porcupine in the Pothwar Plateau.
|
S. N. |
Common name/ Scientific names |
Mean±SE |
|
Wild/ Natural Vegetation |
||
|
1 |
Gum Arabic tree/ Kikar (Vachellia nilotica) |
3.06±0.44 |
|
2 |
Punarnava/ Itt-Sitt (Boerhavia diffusa) |
4.54±0.98 |
|
3 |
Khabbal grass (Cynodon dactylon) |
12.54±1.39 |
|
4 |
Shisham/Indian rosewood (Leave) (Dalbergia sissoo) |
4.29±0.61 |
|
5 |
Indian rosewood (Stem) (Dalbergia sissoo) |
3.84±0.63 |
|
6 |
Dhab (Desmostachya bipinnata) |
11.91±1.14 |
|
7 |
Phulahi (Leave) (Acacia modesta) |
6.21±0.80 |
|
8 |
Phulahi (Stem) (Acacia modesta) |
6.70±0.81 |
|
9 |
Khuggal/ Rukh/Farash (Tamarix aphylla) |
9.81±1.16 |
|
10 |
Jujube (Leave) (Zizipus nummularia) |
23.22±2.26 |
|
11 |
Jujube (Stem) (Zizipus nummularia) |
5.60±0.89 |
|
Cultivated crops |
||
|
12 |
Groundnut/ Peanut (Arachis hypogea) |
9.21±1.61 |
|
13 |
Mustard (Brassica campestris) |
7.53±1.06 |
|
14 |
Chickpea (Cicer arietinum) |
18.55±2.28 |
|
15 |
Fig/ Enjeer (Ficus carica) |
- |
|
16 |
Pearl millet (Pennisetum glaucum) |
12.88±1.81 |
|
17 |
Pea (Pisum sativum) |
- |
|
18 |
Potato (Solanum tuberosum) |
4.16±0.64 |
|
19 |
Wheat (Triticum aestivum) |
13.62±1.49 |
|
20 |
Mazie (Zea mays) |
10.44±1.47 |
|
21 |
Unidentified |
5.59±0.66 |
Seasonal variation
The diet composition of Indian crested porcupine varied seasonally viz. autumn, winter, spring, and summer during the study year (Table III, Supplementary Figs. 2-7). Autumn spans across approximately three months (September to November) in the study area. During this season, the most frequently consumed vegetation species was khabbal grass (19.18±2.91) followed by chickpea (18.78±2.91), while Ittsitt (Boerhavia diffusa; 1.21 ± 2.91)
Table III. Seasonal variation in mean frequency the consumption of natural vegetation and cultivated crops by the Indian crested porcupine in the Pothwar Plateau.
|
Food item/ Common name |
Autumn |
Winter |
Spring |
Summer |
|
Wild vegetation |
||||
|
Gum Arabic tree/ Kikar |
2.25±2.91 |
4.292±2.37 |
4.5±2.91 |
2.08±1.84 |
|
Punarnava/ Itt-Sitt |
1.21±2.91 |
7.333±2.37 |
5.781±2.91 |
3.7±1.84 |
|
Khabbal grass |
19.18±2.91 |
10.60±2.37 |
12.37±2.91 |
11.1±1.84 |
|
Indian rosewood (Leave) |
2.87±2.91 |
5.08±2.37 |
7.28±2.91 |
3.2±1.84 |
|
Indian rosewood (Stem) |
3.25±2.91 |
3.68±2.37 |
10.47±2.91 |
1.53±1.84 |
|
Dhab |
7.56±2.91 |
13.64±2.37 |
12.5±2.91 |
12.38±1.84 |
|
Phulai (Leave) |
8.62±2.91 |
8.95±2.37 |
5.37±2.91 |
3.93±1.84 |
|
Phulai (Stem) |
2.46±2.91 |
7.22±2.37 |
8.00±2.91 |
7.57±1.84 |
|
Khuggal/ Rukh |
9.56±2.91 |
9.45±2.37 |
8.531±2.91 |
10.65±1.84 |
|
Jujube (Leave) |
16.59±2.91 |
25.39±2.37 |
32.75±2.91 |
20.77±1.84 |
|
Jujube (Stem) |
5.37±2.91 |
3.68±2.37 |
11.37±2.91 |
4.53±1.84 |
|
Cultivated crops |
||||
|
Groundnut/ Peanut |
7.75±2.91 |
2.37±2.37 |
6.93±2.91 |
14.81±1.84 |
|
Mustard |
2.53±2.91 |
14±2.37 |
16.34±2.91 |
2.137±1.84 |
|
Chickpea |
18.78±2.91 |
33.87±2.37 |
30.75±2.91 |
4.38±1.84 |
|
Fig/ Enjeer |
0 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
|
Pearl millet |
16.09±2.91 |
8.47±2.37 |
10.47±2.91 |
15.21±1.84 |
|
Pea |
0 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
|
Potato |
5.40±2.91 |
4.5±2.37 |
4.65±2.91 |
3.26±1.84 |
|
Wheat |
6.59±2.91 |
24.58±2.37 |
24.56±2.91 |
5.48±1.84 |
|
Maize |
14.65±2.91 |
6.29±2.37 |
7.375±2.91 |
12.47±1.84 |
|
Unidentified |
6.31±2.91 |
6.00±2.37 |
5.625±2.91 |
5.05±1.84 |
was the least consumed. Throughout the winter season (December to February), there was a notable preference for vegetative and cropping plants in terms of consumption. Leading the list of most consumed plants during this period was chickpea (33.87±2.37), followed by mallah/jujube (25.39±2.37), while the least consumed vegetation species during winter was the groundnut (2.37±2.37). The reason behind this is that groundnut have already been harvested in this season. Spring season, spanning from March to April, witnesses a proliferation of both wild and cultivated plants. The most frequently consumed plant during this season was Jujube leaves (32.75±2.91), followed closely by chickpea (30.75±2.91), whereas potato was the least consumed (4.65±2.91). Summer extends from May to September, making it the longest season. The analysis highlights jujube leaves as the most frequently consumed plant (20.77±1.84). It was followed by millet (with a mean frequency of 15.21±1.84), while the Indian rosewood/Shisham stem was the least consumed (1.53 ± 1.84).
Among wild vegetation, khabbal grass and Jujube were consumed during all seasons of the year while among cultivated plants, groundnut and pearl millet were favorite during summer while chickpea and wheat were most frequently consumed during winter and spring (Table III).
Discussion
Porcupine is considered a generalized herbivore (Kelt, 2011; Lovari et al., 2017). The Indian crested porcupine is an agricultural pest known globally because it consumes and damages many important cash crops (Khan et al., 2007; Hafeez et al., 2011; Lovari et al., 2017) and the species is one of the most important constraints to agricultural production (Aplin et al., 2003). In Pakistan also the species is recognized as a major vertebrate pest of economically important crops like groundnut and maize (Greaves and Khan, 1978; Hafeez et al., 2011). Not only does it destroy crops, but it feeds on a variety of wild plants, grasses, vegetables, and fruits (Pervez, 2006; Khan et al., 2007; Hafeez et al., 2011). The Pothwar Plateau of Pakistan is a semi-arid zone, having subtropical scrub forest type along with some important cultivated food crops like wheat, and maize. The area is also famous for growing groundnut. The Plateau is home to Indian crested porcupine which is widely distributed across 22,500 km2 area. Knowing the wild and cultivated crops preferred by Indian crested porcupines in the Pothwar Plateau is important for saving these cash crops from economic losses. Therefore, in the current study, we aimed to investigate the diet composition of porcupine using the technique of micro-histology through analysis of its faecal samples.
Our results revealed a total of 20 different vegetation species, including both wild and cultivated, consumed by Indian crested porcupine in the Pothwar Plateau. These included 11 wild plants and nine cultivated crops. According to our findings, the porcupine most frequently consumed and preferred mallah leaves as well as stem, khabbal grass and dhab (Desmostachya bipinnata). The porcupine also damages some important wild tree species including phulahi, shisham, and less frequently kikar. All these tree species are economically important for their wood being used for making furniture. In this regard, porcupine has been found to cause economic loss to furniture wood in the study area. This fact is also verified by some previous studies which reported that porcupine damages trees like Indian jujube, gum arabic tree, longleaf Indian pine (Pinus roxburghii) and Indian rosewood on a large scale (Idris and Rana, 2001; Girish et al., 2005). In the current study, across various sites, the average plant consumption remained relatively consistent, owing to the similarity in vegetation composition among these sites. Notable plant preferences emerged, with chickpea, jujube, and khabbal grass consistently standing out as the most consumed plants.
These species exhibited higher frequency of consumption, underscoring their significance within the porcupine diet throughout the study period.
Results of the current study revealed that Indian crested porcupine most frequently consumes some important cultivated cash crops in the study area including wheat, maize, chickpea, groundnut etc. In this respect, the species is causing big economic losses to the food crops every year. These losses need to be quantified and the porcupine needs to be controlled by developing an integrated pest management strategy in the study area. Additionally, one vegetable, potato has also been identified within this dietary spectrum of the porcupine during analysis, however, it could have been eaten passively since potatoe is not cultivated in the study area on a large scale. Some previous studies match the findings of the current study indicating that Indian crested porcupine causes huge damage to groundnut, maize, and sugarcane in Pakistan, along with consuming important vegetables like potato and onion (Khan et al., 2000; Hafeez et al., 2011). The species also damages wheat and rice on a large scale (Arslan, 2008) and causes great damage to the cultivated area (Mohamed, 2011). Reports from some other regions of the country also show that Indian crested porcupine damages cultivated crops. For example, Hafeez et al. (2011) reported that the most consumed crops by porcupines were wheat, mustard, and maize.
Similarly, Hafeez et al. (2014) also reported from Thal, Punjab that the potato was least consumed in summer. Khan et al. (2021) reported that potato was the least consumed species in summer. Our research concludes the same that potato is the least consumed specie in summer with a mean frequency of 3.26±1.84. These results confirm to the reported results. The diet composition of Indian crested porcupine varies with the season in the study area, depending upon the availability of the wild and cultivated vegetation. The season has been found to influence the diet of the porcupine as there is variation in the diet in each season especially for the cultivated plants. Among wild vegetation, jujube, khabbal, and Indian rosewood were consumed during all seasons because of their availability. Among cultivated crops, groundnut and pearl millet were frequently consumed during the summer season while chickpea and wheat were the preferred crops during the winter season. Our findings are supported by some previous studies conducted in some other regions of the country; Khan et al. (2021) reported from the Azad Jammu and Kashmir area that in winter season the porcupine most frequently consumed a broad-leaved dock (Rumex obtusifolius) while in summer, the most frequently consumed plant species was maize in autumn; maize continued to be the most consumed species while in spring and summer, wheat took the lead by being the most frequently consumed cash crop. Our findings suggest similar data that wheat is the most consumed plant during the spring and summer seasons, while millet emerged as the second most consumed plant. In another study Hafeez et al. (2015), while analyzing porcupine’s stomach contents revealed that kikar was the most consumed tree species during all seasons of the year. In the current study, similar findings have been revealed, although with much lower frequency. Nonetheless, kikar remains a preferred plant in the porcupine diet. The fluctuations witnessed in dietary preference during all four seasons of the year, particularly concerning cultivated plants, serve as a compelling confirmation of the undeniable role that seasonal factors play in shaping the porcupine’s feeding behavior.
Conclusion
The current study concludes that Indian crested porcupine consumes both wild and cultivated crops in the Pothwar plateau, notable wild plants consumed include, jujube, khabble grass, shisham, and phulahi while among cultivated crops the porcupine most frequently consumed wheat, chickpea, groundnut and millet, depending upon their availability during different seasons. Our findings also highlight that the porcupine poses an increasing risk as an agricultural pest in the area due to its dietary preferences.
Declarations
Acknowledgment
The authors would like to extend their thanks to the Faculty of the Department of Veterinary Sciences at Pir Mehr Ali Shah Arid Agriculture University, Rawalpindi, Pakistan for their full cooperation and for providing the Zeiss-camera fitted microscope to enhance the quality of pictures. Special appreciation goes to Dr. Muhammad Irfan for assisting with the statistical analysis of the data.
Funding
The study received no external funding.
There is supplementary material associated with this article. Access the material online at: https://dx.doi.org/10.17582/journal.pjz/20240501125036
Statement of conflict of interest
The authors have declared no conflict of interest.
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