Research Article

Influence of Farming Systems on the Incidence of Toxoplasma gondii Infection in Cattle and Goats

Muhammad Fayaz1, Farhan Ali Laghari2, Sajjad Ali3, Abdur Rahman4, Abdul Kabir5*, Muhammad Uzair6, Salman Lakho7, Muhammad Usman8

1National Veterinary Laboratory, Islamabad; 2Department of Livestock Poultry Wing, Government of Sindh; 3Department of Animal Reproduction, Sindh Agriculture University, Tandojam; 4Livestock Management Department, The University of Agriculture Peshawar; 5Department of Veterinary Microbiology, Sindh Agriculture University Tandojam; 6College of Veterinary Sciences, Faculty of Animal Husbandry and Veterinary Sciences, University of Agriculture, Peshawar, Pakistan; 7Department of Animal Reproduction Sindh Agriculture University Tandojam,8Faculty of Animal Husbandry and Veterinary Sciences Sindh Agriculture University Tandojam.

Received | October 12, 2025; Accepted | November 02, 2025; Published | January 03, 2026

*Correspondence | Abdul Kabir, Department of Veterinary Microbiology, Sindh Agriculture University Tandojam; Email: [email protected]

Citation | Fayaz M, Laghari FA, Ali S, Rahman A, Kabir A, Uzair M, Lakho S, Usman M (2026). Influence of farming systems on the incidence of Toxoplasma gondii infection in cattle and goats. Res. J. Vet. Pract. 14(1): 11-16.

DOI | https://dx.doi.org/10.17582/journal.rjvp/2026/14.1.11.16

ISSN | 2308-2798

Copyright: 2026 by the authors. Licensee ResearchersLinks Ltd, England, UK.

This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

INTRODUCTION

Agriculture is a cornerstone of Pakistan’s economy, and livestock farming plays a pivotal role in rural livelihoods. According to the Pakistan Economic Survey 2023–24, the livestock sector contributes approximately 60.84% to the agricultural value-added and 14.63% to the national GDP. The gross value addition of livestock rose to PKR 5,804 billion in 2023–24 from PKR 5,587 billion in 2022–23, reflecting a growth rate of 3.9% (Pakistan Economy Survey, 2024). Over 8 million rural families are engaged in livestock production, and the sector also contributes about 1.6% to total national exports. In Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (KP), the livestock population increased from 35.50 million in 2022–23 to 36.10 million in 2023–24, highlighting the province’s critical role in national livestock production (Pakistan Economy Survey, 2024).

Toxoplasma gondii is an obligate intracellular protozoan parasite and a globally significant zoonotic pathogen that infects a wide range of warm-blooded animals, including cattle, goats, sheep, and humans (Shoukat et al., 2022). Infection in livestock can cause reproductive losses such as abortions, neonatal mortality, and weak offspring, while also posing a public health risk through the consumption of undercooked meat or unpasteurized milk (Qamar et al., 2023). Globally, seroprevalence varies widely, with rates of 20–40% in small ruminants and up to 50% in specific occupationally exposed human populations (Ahaduzzaman and Reza, 2024).

The prevalence and incidence of T. gondii are strongly influenced by farming systems. Traditional systems, characterized by mixed herds, free-ranging animals, and minimal biosecurity, generally exhibit higher infection rates than commercial systems with controlled environments (Odeniran et al., 2020). The presence of cats, unhygienic housing, and pasture contamination further increase infection risk (Ayub et al., 2024). The parasite is transmitted primarily through ingestion of oocysts from contaminated feed, water, or the environment, and transplacental transmission may also occur, causing congenital toxoplasmosis (Singh, 2016).

Toxoplasma gondii is a ubiquitous protozoan parasite with a complex life cycle involving both definitive hosts (cats and other felids) and intermediate hosts (livestock, birds, and humans). Livestock become infected primarily through ingestion of sporulated oocysts present in contaminated water, feed, or soil. The parasite can also be transmitted vertically from infected dams to their offspring, causing congenital infections that may lead to abortion or weak neonates (De Noya et al., 2020). Goats and cattle are particularly susceptible, and infection often remains subclinical, making detection and control challenging. In addition to its economic impact on livestock production, T. gondii poses a significant zoonotic risk, as humans may acquire infection through consumption of undercooked meat, unpasteurized milk, or contaminated vegetables and water (Dubey et al., 2020). Recent global studies report that T. gondii infection affects nearly one-third of the world’s population, highlighting the importance of integrated surveillance and control strategies in both animal and human populations (Mushtaq et al., 2025). Given the economic importance of livestock and the zoonotic potential of T. gondii, understanding its prevalence, risk factors, and transmission dynamics is crucial. Effective control measures, including improved biosecurity, proper feeding management, and public awareness, are essential to reduce both livestock production losses and public health risks (Jori et al., 2021).

The present study aimed to evaluate the impact of different farming systems on the seroprevalence of Toxoplasma gondii in cattle and goats. By comparing traditional and commercial farming practices, this study seeks to identify key risk factors associated with infection and provide baseline data that can inform effective control strategies to reduce both economic losses in livestock and potential zoonotic transmission to humans.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Study area and herd selection

The study was conducted in Charsadda District (34.145°N, 71.731°E), which spans 996 km² and has a population of approximately one million. Administratively, the district is divided into three tehsils: Charsadda, Tangi, and Shabqadar. For this study, ten union councils were randomly selected across the three tehsils. A total of 60 households were included, with 20 households from each tehsil. Herds were stratified by farming system, comprising traditional herds (5–10 cattle or 10–15 goats) and commercial herds (≥15 cattle or ≥25 goats).

Data collection and sampling

A structured questionnaire was used to collect household- and herd-level information, including demographics, herd size and composition, management practices, feeding, water sources, veterinary care, disease history, waste management, and the presence of cats. Blood samples (3 mL) were collected aseptically from the jugular vein of cattle and goats. In total, 640 serum samples (320 cattle and 320 goats) were collected: 128 from Charsadda, 96 from Tangi, and 96 from Shabqadar. Samples were grouped into two age categories (goats: ≤2 years and >2 years; cattle: ≤3 years and >3 years). Serum was separated by centrifugation (3,000 rpm for 10 minutes) and stored at –20 °C until testing (Table 1). Samples were immediately transported on ice to the Veterinary Research Laboratory, Peshawar, ensuring the cold chain was maintained throughout transportation to prevent degradation.

Serological testing and breeds examined

Antibodies against Toxoplasma gondii were detected using the Latex Agglutination Test (LAT) with a commercial diagnostic kit (Weiner Lab, Argentina), following the manufacturer’s protocol. This assay has been widely validated for seroprevalence screening of T. gondii. The LAT kit used in this study had a sensitivity of 96% and specificity of 98%, ensuring high diagnostic reliability. Two cattle breeds (Achai and crossbred) and two goat breeds (Dasi and crossbred) were examined, with sampling distributed across tehsils and farming systems (Table 2).

 

Table 1: Distribution of serum samples collected from cattle and goats in Charsadda District.

Species	Breed	Tehsil (Charsadda)	Tehsil (Tangi)	Tehsil (Shabqadar)	Total	Farming system (Traditional/ Commercial)
Cattle	Achai	32	24	24	80	Both
Cattle	Crossbred	32	24	24	80	Both
Goats	Dasi (Local)	32	24	24	80	Both
Goats	Crossbred	32	24	24	80	Both
Total		128	96	96	640

 

Table 2: Risk factors and variables assessed for T. gondii incidence in cattle and goats in Charsadda District, Pakistan.

Variable category	Factors Considered
Animal-related	Species (cattle, goats); Breed (Achai, Crossbred cattle; Desi, Crossbred goats); Age group (≤2 years, >2 years in goats; ≤3 years, >3 years in cattle); Sex (male, female)
Management-related	Farming system (traditional, commercial); Herd size; Feeding system (stall-fed, grazing, mixed)
Environmental	Water source (river/canal, tube well, pond); Shelter and hygiene status; Waste removal frequency
Health-related	Veterinary services availability; Disease outbreak history; Mortality; Abortion records
Socioeconomic	Farmer education level; Main occupation; Household size; Income status

 

Statistical design

Sample size was estimated assuming 50% expected prevalence, 95% confidence level, and 5% desired precision, following. Data were entered in Microsoft Excel and analyzed using SPSS version 25.0 (IBM Corp., USA). Descriptive statistics were calculated, and associations of T. gondii seroprevalence with risk factors (species, breed, sex, age, farming system, management practices, and tehsil) were assessed using ANOVA, General Linear Models (GLM), and Pearson’s correlation coefficient. Statistical significance was set at p < 0.05. All data were double-checked for entry errors to ensure data integrity and reproducibility.

 

Table 3: Impact of farming system on the incidence of T. gondii infection in cattle and goats, Charsadda District.

Specie	Farming system	Negative	Positive	P value
Cattle	Traditional farming system	83.70% (134)	16.30% (26)	0.034
Cattle	Commercial farming system	91.20% (146)	8.80% (14)
Goat	Traditional farming system	75.60% (121)	24.40% (39)	0.003
Goat	Commercial farming system	88.10% (141)	11.90% (19)

 

RESULTS

A total of 640 serum samples (320 cattle and 320 goats) were screened for Toxoplasma gondii antibodies; each species comprised 160 samples from traditional and 160 from commercial farming systems. In cattle, the prevalence was 16.3% under traditional systems and 8.8% under commercial systems (χ², p = 0.034). In goats, seropositivity was significantly higher under traditional (24.4%) than commercial (11.9%) systems (p = 0.003) (Table 3).

Impact of tehsil

The prevalence of T. gondii in cattle from Charsadda, Shabqadar, and Tangi tehsils was 18.7%, 8.0%, and 9.4%, respectively. In goats, the corresponding rates were 21.1%, 19.8%, and 12.5%. A significant difference was observed among cattle (p = 0.020), whereas the difference was non-significant in goats (p = 0.225) (Table 4).

 

Table 4: Impact of tehsil on the prevalence of Toxoplasma gondii in cattle and goats in Charsadda District.

Tehsil	Specie	Negative	Positive	P-value
Charsadda	Cattle	81.30% (104)	18.70% (24)	0.020
Shabqader	Cattle	92.00% (88)	8.00% (8)
Tangi	Cattle	90.60% (87)	9.40% (9)
Charsadda	Goat	78.90% (101)	21.10% (27)	0.225
Shabqader	Goat	80.20% (77)	19.80% (19)
Tangi	Goat	87.50% (84)	12.50% (12)

 

Impact of breed

Among cattle, Achai and crossbred breeds showed seroprevalence rates of 6.2% and 18.8%, respectively. In goats, Dasi (local) and crossbred breeds exhibited 12.5% and 23.7% prevalence. The association between breed and infection was statistically significant (p < 0.05) in both species (Table 5).

Species influence

Overall, the prevalence of T. gondii was 12.5% in cattle and 18.1% in goats, with the difference being statistically significant (p = 0.048), indicating higher infection rates in goats (Table 6).

 

Table 5: Impact of breed on the seroprevalence of Toxoplasma gondii in cattle and goats.

Specie	Breed	Negative	Positive	P-value
Cattle	Achai	93.8% (150)	6.2% (10)	0.001
Cattle	Crossbred	81.3% (130)	18.8% (30)
Goat	Desi (Local)	87.5% (140)	12.5% (20)	0.009
Goat	Crossbred	76.3% (122)	23.7% (38)

 

Table 6: Influence of species on the overall prevalence of Toxoplasma gondii infection.

Specie	Negative	Positive	P-value
Cattle	87.50% (280)	12.50% (40)	0.048
Goat	81.90% (262)	18.10% (58)

 

Impact of sex

Among cattle, seroprevalence was 5.6% in males and 19.4% in females. In goats, infection rates were 11.2% in males and 25.0% in females. The association between sex and infection status was highly significant (p < 0.05) for both species (Table 7).

 

Table 7: Impact of sex on the seropositivity of Toxoplasma gondii in cattle and goats.

Specie	Sex	Negative	Positive	P-value
Cattle	Male	94.40% (151)	5.60% (9)	0.000
Cattle	Female	80.60% (129)	19.40% (31)
Goat	Male	88.80% (142)	11.20% (18)	0.001
Goat	Female	75.00% (120)	25.00% (40)

 

Impact of water source

Animals consuming canal water showed higher prevalence (cattle: 23.1%; goats: 24.4%) compared to those using pump water (cattle: 4.0%; goats: 11.5%). These differences were highly significant (p < 0.05) (Table 8).

 

Table 8: Effect of water source on the prevalence of Toxoplasma gondii in cattle and goats.

Specie	Water source	Negative	Positive	P-value
Cattle	Pump water	96.00% (170)	4.00% (7)	0.000
Cattle	Canal water	76.90% (110)	23.10% (33)
Goat	Pump water	88.50% (138)	11.50% (18)	0.003
Goat	Canal water	75.60% (124)	24.40% (40)

 

Impact of feeding source

Grazing cattle (21.9%) and goats (22.9%) exhibited significantly higher infection rates compared to stall-fed cattle (2.0%) and goats (12.1%). The association between feeding system and seropositivity was highly significant (p < 0.05) (Table 9).

 

Table 9: Impact of feeding source on the seroprevalence of Toxoplasma gondii in cattle and goats.

Specie	Feeding source	Negative	Positive	P-value
Cattle	Stall feeding	98.00% (148)	2.00% (3)	0.000
Cattle	Grazing	78.10% (132)	21.90% (37)
Goat	Stall feeding	87.90% (124)	12.10% (17)	0.012
Goat	Grazing	77.10% (138)	22.90% (41)

 

DISSCUSSION

The present study demonstrated a significantly higher prevalence of T. gondii infection in animals reared under traditional systems compared to commercial systems, with goats showing the highest positivity (24.4%). This finding is consistent with previous reports, where extensive or backyard systems were associated with greater exposure to T. gondii due to poor biosecurity and higher likelihood of contact with cats, contaminated pastures, and untreated water (Dubey, 2021; Stelzer et al., 2019). Animals in intensive or commercial farms are usually better protected, which reduces the risk of oocyst ingestion (Kamani et al., 2010; Liu et al., 2022).Prevalence varied across the three tehsils, with Charsadda showing the highest incidence in both species. Such geographical variation may reflect differences in farm density, cat population, climate, and water source contamination (Rahman et al., 2020; Gebremedhin et al., 2014). Similar spatial clustering has been reported in Ethiopia, Brazil, and China, where localized management practices and environmental contamination strongly influenced infection rates (Zhou et al., 2017). Crossbred cattle (18.8%) and goats (23.7%) exhibited significantly higher prevalence than indigenous breeds (Achai cattle, 6.2%; Desi goats, 12.5%). Crossbreeds may be more susceptible due to stress of intensive rearing and possible genetic factors (Ragozo et al., 2009; Wang et al., 2016). Local breeds, adapted to environmental conditions, may possess relative resistance against parasitic infections (Babaie et al., 2017). Our findings agree with Khan et al. (2017), who reported higher infection in crossbred small ruminants in South Asia. Goats (18.1%) were more frequently infected than cattle (12.5%), consistent with earlier studies (Dubey, 2021; Gondim et al., 2017). Goats are more susceptible because of their browsing behavior, which increases exposure to contaminated foliage and water (Figueiredo et al., 2018). Cattle, although less susceptible to tissue cyst formation, may still act as mechanical carriers and pose zoonotic risk (Stelzer et al., 2019). Females in both species showed significantly higher prevalence than males. Hormonal changes during pregnancy and lactation may compromise immunity, increasing susceptibility (Wang et al., 2016; Liu et al., 2015). Several studies have documented a higher seroprevalence in female goats compared to males (Ramzan et al., 2009; Dubey, 2021). This highlights the potential reproductive consequences of T. gondii, including abortions, stillbirths, and neonatal losses (Liu et al., 2015). Animals using canal water showed markedly higher prevalence (cattle 23.1%, goats 24.4%) than those using pump water. Water is an established transmission route of T. gondii oocysts, particularly where untreated surface water is consumed (Rousseau et al., 2018). Outbreaks linked to contaminated water have been reported in humans and animals (Bahia-Oliveira et al., 2017). This underscores the importance of safe water provision for livestock.Grazing animals had higher prevalence compared to stall-fed animals. This agrees with the findings of Tenter et al. (2000) and Guo et al. (2015), who reported that access to contaminated pastures significantly increases the risk of infection. Grazing behavior exposes animals to soil, grass, and water potentially contaminated with oocysts shed by cats, the definitive host. The overall higher prevalence in goats, females, and animals under traditional management highlights the critical role of husbandry practices and environmental contamination in the epidemiology of toxoplasmosis. The results confirm that improved farm biosecurity, safe water provision, and limiting cat access to animal environments are essential to reduce the zoonotic risk of T. gondii in livestock and humans.

CONCLUSION

The study revealed a higher incidence of Toxoplasma gondii in goats than in cattle, particularly under traditional farming systems. Crossbred and female animals showed greater susceptibility, while canal water use and grazing practices significantly increased infection risk. Overall, goats were more affected, confirming their role as important reservoirs. These findings highlight the need for improved biosecurity, safe water provision, and One Health–based control strategies to protect livestock and human health.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors thank the livestock farmers of Charsadda District and the Department of Veterinary Parasitology, The University of Agriculture, Peshawar, for their support and cooperation during this study.

NOVELTY STATEMENT

This study is the first to report the comparative influence of traditional and commercial farming systems on the seroprevalence of Toxoplasma gondii infection in cattle and goats in Charsadda District, Pakistan. The findings reveal that management practices, water sources, and animal breed significantly affect T. gondii transmission dynamics under local field conditions.

AUTHOR’s CONTRUBATION

MF and AR: Conducted the study and collected data. SA and FAL: Assisted in analysis. AK: Supervised the work, interpreted results, and finalized the manuscript. MU, SL, and MU: Contributed to review and editing. All authors approved the final manuscript.

Generative AI and AI-assisted technology statement

The authors declare that no generative AI or AI-assisted technologies were used in the design, execution, or inter pretation of this research study. AI tools were not used to create, analyze, or modify any part of the manuscript. All content and intellectual input are solely the work of the authors.

Conflict of interest

The authors have declared no conflict of interest.

REFRENCESS

Ahaduzzaman M, Reza MMB (2024). Global and regional seroprevalence of coxiellosis in small ruminants: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Vet. Med. Sci., 10(3): 1441. https://doi.org/10.1002/vms3.1441

Ayub I, Rehman H, Ali S (2024). Prevalence of Toxoplasma gondii in humans and animals in Pakistan. Pak. Vet. J., 44(1): 83–89.

Babaie J, Sadraei J, Dalimi A, Namroodi S (2017). Seroprevalence of Toxoplasma gondii in sheep and goats in Semnan province, Iran. Iran. J. Parasitol., 8(1): 89–93.

Bahia-Oliveira LMG, Jones JL, Azevedo-Silva J, Alves CCF, Oréfice F, Addiss DG (2017). Highly endemic, waterborne toxoplasmosis in north Rio de Janeiro state, Brazil. Emerg. Infect. Dis., 9(1): 55–62. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid0901.020160

De Noya BA, Ruiz-Guevara R (2020). Pregnancy as a risk factor to disease and the vertical transmission to the fetus, of a host of parasitic ailments, pp. 1-16. https://doi.org/10.47449/CM.2020.1.1.5

Dubey JP, Murata FHA, Cerqueira-Cézar CK, Kwok,OCH, Yang YR (2020).Public health significance of Toxoplasma gondii infections in cattle: 2009–2020. The Journal of Parasitology, 106(6): 772–788.https://doi.org/10.1645/20-82

Figueiredo A, Cordeiro C, Serafim T, Costa R (2018). Risk factors for Toxoplasma gondii infection in dairy goats. Small Rumin. Res., 169: 8–13.

Gebremedhin EZ, Abdurahaman M, Hadush T, Tessema TS, Tilahun G (2014). Seroprevalence and risk factors of Toxoplasma gondii in sheep and goats in Mekelle, Northern Ethiopia. BMC Vet. Res., 9: 139.

Gondim LFP, Barbosa IR, Ribeiro-Andrade M, Saeki H, Begali H (2017). Seroprevalence of Toxoplasma gondii in goats from Bahia, Brazil. Rev. Brasil. Parasitol. Vet., 26(4): 452–456.

Guo M, Dubey JP, Hill D, Buchanan RL, Gamble HR, Jones JL, Pradhan AK (2015). Prevalence and risk factors for Toxoplasma gondii infection in food animals: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Foodb. Pathog. Dis., 12(7): 505–516.

Jori F, Hernandez-Jover M, Magouras I, Dürr S, Brookes VJ (2021). Wildlife–livestock interactions in animal production systems: What are the biosecurity and health implications? Anim. Front., 11(5): 8-19. https://doi.org/10.1093/af/vfab045

Kamani J, Mani AU, Egwu GO (2010). Seroprevalence of Toxoplasma gondii infection in domestic sheep and goats in Borno state, Nigeria. Trop. Anim. Health Prod., 42(4): 793–797. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11250-009-9488-3

Khan A, Su C, German M, Storch GA, Clifford DB, Sibley LD (2017). Genotyping of Toxoplasma gondii strains from immunocompromised patients reveals high prevalence of type I strains. J. Clin. Microbiol., 49(5): 1513–1517.

Liu, X., Fan, L., Tan, Q., Chen, X., Li, H., Zhao, X., & Zhang, X. (2022). Prevalence of Toxoplasma gondii in pigs determined by ELISA based on recombinant SAG1 in Shandong province, China. Comparative Immunology, Microbiology and Infectious Diseases, 83, 101781. DOI: 10.1016/j.cimid.2022.101781

Liu Q, Wang ZD, Huang SY, Zhu XQ (2015). Diagnosis of toxoplasmosis and typing of Toxoplasma gondii. Parasit. Vectors, 8: 292. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13071-015-0902-6

Mushtaq, Talib, Al-Safi MTAS (2025). A study on the impact of Toxoplasma gondii on the community via genetic research. A study on the impact of Toxoplasma gondii on the community via genetic research, J. Med. Genet. Clin. Biol., 2(12): 547-570. https://doi.org/10.61796/jmgcb.v2i12.1463

Odeniran, P. O., Omolabi, K. F., Ademola, I. O. (2020). A meta-analysis of Toxoplasma gondii seroprevalence, genotypes and risk factors among food animals in West African countries from public health perspectives. Preventive veterinary medicine, 176, 104925. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.prevetmed.2020.104925

Pakistan Economic Survey 2023–24. Chapter 24–Agriculture and livestock.

Qamar W, Rehman H, Ali S (2023). A review of foodborne Toxoplasma gondii with a special focus on its prevalence in Pakistan from 2000 to 2022. Front. Vet. Sci., 9: 1080139. https://doi.org/10.3389/fvets.2022.1080139

Ragozo AMA, Yai LEO, Oliveira LN, Dias RA, Dubey JP, Gennari SM (2009). Seroprevalence and isolation of Toxoplasma gondii from goats in São Paulo state, Brazil. Vet. Parasitol., 153(1–2): 267–270. https://doi.org/10.1645/GE-1854.1

Rahman MM, Islam MR, Akter S, Haque ME (2020). Seroprevalence of Toxoplasma gondii infection in domestic ruminants in Bangladesh. Vet. World, 7(12): 938–943.

Ramzan M, Akhtar M, Muhammad F, Hussain I, Hiszczynska-Sawicka E, Haq AU, Mahmood MS (2009). Seroprevalence of Toxoplasma gondii in sheep and goats in Punjab, Pakistan. Pak. Vet. J., 29(3): 138–140.

Rousseau A, La Carbona S, Dumètre A, Robertson LJ, Gargala G, Escotte-Binet S, Aubert D (2018). Assessing viability and infectivity of foodborne and waterborne stages (cysts/oocysts) of Giardia duodenalis, Cryptosporidium spp., and Toxoplasma gondii: A review of methods. Parasite, 25: 14. https://doi.org/10.1051/parasite/2018009

Shoukat T, Iqbal M, Khan RA, Ahmad S (2022). Epidemiology of toxoplasmosis among the Pakistani population. PMC9227424. https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens11060675

Singh S (2016). Congenital toxoplasmosis: Clinical features, outcomes, treatment, and prevention. Trop. Parasitol., 6(2): 113-122. https://doi.org/10.4103/2229-5070.190813

Stelzer S, Basso W, Silván JB, Ortega-Mora LM, Maksimov P, Gethmann J, Conraths FJ, Schares G (2019). Toxoplasma gondii infection and toxoplasmosis in farm animals: Risk factors and economic impact. Food Waterb. Parasitol., 15: e00037. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fawpar.2019.e00037

Tenter AM, Heckeroth AR, Weiss LM (2000). Toxoplasma gondii: From animals to humans. Int. J. Parasitol., 30(12–13): 1217–1258. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0020-7519(00)00124-7

Wang HL, Wang YH, Liu Q, Liu J, Yang JF (2016). Prevalence of Toxoplasma gondii antibodies in dairy cattle in China. J. Vet. Sci., 17(2): 273–276.

Zhou DH, Zhao FR, Lu P, Xia HY, Xu MJ, Zhu XQ, Lin RQ (2017). Seroprevalence of Toxoplasma gondii infection in dairy cattle in China. J. Parasitol., 102(3): 369–370.