Research Article

Population Abundance, Development and Survival of Peach Fruit Fly Bactrocera zonata (Saunders) (Diptera: Tephritidae) on Different Citrus Cultivars in Wasit Province, Iraq

Hasan Al-Khshemawee1*, Khais Muri Laabusi1 and Hassnen T. Kareem1

1Department of Plant Protection, College of Agriculture, Wasit University, Wasit, Iraq.

Received | August 04, 2025; Accepted | Oct 4, 2025; Published | January 23, 2026

*Correspondence | Hasan Al-Khshemawee, Department of Plant Protection, College of Agriculture, Wasit University, Wasit, Iraq; Email: [email protected]

Citation | Khshemawee, H.A., K.M. Laabusi and H.T. Kareem. 2026. Population abundance, Development and survival of peach fruit fly Bactrocera zonata (Saunders) (Diptera: Tephritidae) on different citrus cultivars in wasit province, Iraq. Sarhad Journal of Agriculture, 42(1): 123-130.

DOI | https://dx.doi.org/10.17582/journal.sja/2026/42.1.123.130

Keywords | Peach fruit fly, Bactrocera zonata, Citrus cultivars, Differential host preference, Seasonal abundance, Fruit infestation rate, Mortality factors.

Copyright: 2026 by the authors. Licensee ResearchersLinks Ltd, England, UK.

This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

Introduction

Citrus is a vital fruit crop all over the world. These fruits are nutritionally rich, containing many vitamins, minerals, and fibers, particularly vitamin C (Liu et al., 2012). A variety of citrus cultivars are being cultivated in different tropical and subtropical regions of the world (Hamid et al., 2024). Mandarins, oranges, and grapefruits are among the most appraised and economically important citrus cultivars around the globe, including Iraq (Al-Snafi, 2016). However, Iraq is far behind in terms of citrus production per unit area compared to other citrus-producing countries (Singh et al., 2021). Citrus production is primarily hindered by many factors, including biotic and abiotic stresses and the incidence of different insect pests and diseases (Al-Khshemawee et al., 2018; Yesiloglu et al., 2022; Abu-Ragheef et al., 2023).

Fruit flies are one of the most economically important insect pests of different horticultural crops, including citrus (Papadopoulos et al., 2024). Fruit fly (Bactrocera zonata Saunders), commonly known as peach fruit fly, belongs to the Tephritidae family of the Diptera order. It is basically an oligophagous pest and is one of the most serious insect pests affecting many fruit trees and urban crops, causing significant economic losses to different fruit crops in tropical and subtropical regions of the world (Alzubaidy, 2000; Ashfaq et al., 2020; Riaz et al., 2022; Al Abbas and Mohammad, 2025). It poses a serious threat to citrus production all over the world, including Iraq. Female fruit flies infest the ripened or semi-ripened fruits by depositing their eggs inside the fruits, subsequently causing significant economic loss to citrus production (Al-Khshemawee et al., 2017; Al-Jassany et al., 2018; Saeed et al., 2022). This species inflicts damage worth millions of euros annually in the Far East and approximately 190 million euros in Egypt (Duyck et al., 2004; Abd-Elgawad, 2021). This fruit fly is being ranked first among the economically important fruit fly species (Zingore et al., 2020). It has been recorded on more than 350 plant host species (Draz, 2016), most of which are of high economic importance, such as citrus fruits, oleaginous fruits, and stone fruits such as peaches, apricots, and pomes. Such as apples, pears, quince, vegetables, and many plant families, as well as dates (Ghanim, 2009).

In Iraq, B. zonata has been considerably invading citrus and other fruit orchards, particularly in the Wasit province (Alzubaidy, 2000; Younes and Akel, 2010; Alghanimi et al., 2025). This spread of B. zonata in Iraq could be the result of weak agricultural quarantine measures, as well as the imports of citrus fruits and vegetables from countries where this pest is more prevalent, such as Iran, Saudi Arabia, and Egypt. It has been found to cause significant economic losses to many fruit crops, including mandarins and oranges (Alghanimi et al., 2025).

Keeping in view the seriousness of this pest species, its rapid spread and adaptation to different environmental conditions, and the abundance of host plants and the extent of damage it causes to different fruit crops (Duyck et al., 2004; Delrio and Cocco, 2010; Afia, 2018; Sallam et al., 2024), this field study aimed to monitor the temporal distribution of the B. zonata on different citrus cultivars in Wasit province of Iraq, and to identify the most important mortality factors affecting this pest species.

Materials and Methods

Fruit fly monitoring

Insect sampling was conducted in the orchards of each district of Wasit Province. In addition to citrus cultivars such as mandarins, oranges, and bitter oranges, these targeted fruit orchards were of apple, fig, and date palm. Tefri® pheromone traps, containing methyl eugenol male fruit fly lure, were set up @ 24 traps per acre. Five traps were placed randomly in one orchard unit. Insects (captured male fruit flies) were collected from the traps weekly and placed in polyethylene bags to be carried to the laboratory for calculating the total number of male fruit flies captured per trap. The pheromone or lure station in the traps was replaced every 15 days. Prevailing atmospheric temperature and relative humidity were acquired from the local agricultural meteorological station affiliated with Wasit Agriculture Directorate.

Host preference determination

This experiment was carried out in the orchards of different citrus cultivars in an overlapping manner. In brief, thirty-four trees of each citrus species or cultivar were selected and identified in the study area. These trees of citrus cultivars selected for the study included sweet orange (Citrus sinensis L.), bitter orange (Citrus aurantium L.), and mandarin (Citrus reticulata L.). Ten fruits were randomly taken from each tree, and the percentage of citrus fruit infestation was determined based on oviposition scars made by female B. zonata, larval decaying spots, and fruit rot. The infested fruits were taken to the laboratory at 27–31°C. To confirm the diagnosis of the insect, these fruits were placed in plastic containers measuring 30 × 30 × 30 cm, with a 2 cm thick layer of sterile soil inside the containers’ bottom. Two fruits were placed in each container, and the container was tightly covered with a muslin cloth secured with a rubber band. Monitoring was done until the emergence of adult fruit flies, which were later identified up to species level. The percentage of fruit infestation was determined according to the following equation;

Moreover, ten infested fruits of each citrus cultivar were taken to the laboratory and were dissected to determine the number of fruit fly maggots (larvae) present within the fruit.

Determination of life table parameters of B. zonata

The life table parameters of the fruit fly were determined in the field based on the data obtained from the semi-monthly field surveys conducted from October to December 2024 in the citrus orchards of Wasit Province of Iraq. In addition, the key factor (Kf), which represents the sum of the logarithms of mortality for each age group, is calculated according to the following equation.

Where, kx = age-specific mortality (x), nx = number of individuals at the given age, nx + 1 = number of individuals at the subsequent age, and the total generation mortality, represented by the value K was calculated by summing the K values of all age groups i.e., K = K1 + K2 + K3 ... + KN (Smith, 1993).

Statistical analysis

The statistical software SPSS (Version 22.0) was used for statistical analysis of the data. The results regarding the fruit fly captures, mortality, and life table parameters were analyzed using an analysis of variance according to the design used, and the mean values were compared using the least significant difference (LSD) at a probability level of 0.05.

Results and Discussion

Fruit fly B. zonata has been a challenging and hard-to-control pest of fruit orchards, particularly of oranges, mandarins, and other citrus fruits (Zingore et al., 2020; Tramontini et al., 2025). This pest has threatened citrus production in Iraq (Delrio and Cocco, 2010; Alghanimi et al., 2025). This study aimed to better understand the incidence and development of B. zonata in different citrus fruit orchards under the prevailing agro-climatic conditions of Wasit Province of Iraq. Random fruit fly samplings were done using pheromone traps, and the infestation and development of fruit flies in the fruits of sweet oranges, bitter oranges, and mandarins were carried out from October 2024 to December 2024 in different orchards of Wasit province.

According to the results, the fluctuations in the number of male peach fruit fly (B. zonata) individuals caught in the Tefri® traps were according to the prevailing temperature and relative humidity parameters. The results showed that the temperature and relative humidity significantly affected the number of male fruit flies attracted and trapped in the pheromone traps. The number of adult female flies began to increase at the beginning of November till the end of November. The average number of male fruit flies trapped was 252.6, 292.6, and 233 individuals per trap per week, respectively, for October, November, and December 2024. The average prevailing temperature and relative humidity values for the study period were 29.0°C and 55.5%, respectively. The capture numbers of fruit flies (males/trap/week) increased from early to end November, and then began to decrease as the temperature decreased, reaching their lowest population density at the end of December (Table 1).

 

Table 1: Population density of peach fruit fly B. zonata during different months in the fruit orchards of Wasit Province, Iraq.

Sample No.	Sampling months
	October	November	December
1	210*	255	211
2	234	245	216
3	244	286	243
4	265	276	287
5	310	401	208
Average	252.6	292.6	233

 

* Number of male fruit fly individuals caught in Tefri® fruit fly traps per trap per week.

 

Our results corroborate that the prevailing temperature and relative humidity had a significant impact on the population density of peach fruit fly B. zonata, with the highest density recorded in November (Ali et al., 2011; Sarwar et al., 2023). Duyck et al. (2004) indicated that the optimum temperature for the development of peach fruit fly (B. zonata) ranges between 25 and 30°C, and that the development time decreases with increasing temperature. Choudhary et al. (2020) and Nisar et al. (2021) reported that the lower temperatures reduced the hatch rate of eggs from 80 to 20% when the temperature decreased from 30 to 16°C.

 

Table 2: Average percent infestation of fruits of different citrus cultivars of wasit province, iraq by peach fruit fly b. zonata during different months.

Type of citrus	Months			Average
	October	November	December
Orange	15.26	34.45	8.43	19.38
Mandarin	33.50	65.43	16.54	38.49
Bitter orange	0.45	14.46	9.76	8.22
Average	16.40	38.11	11.57
LSD	citrus cultivar: 2.992		months: 3.874

 

Results of the host preference study showed that the peach fruit fly (B. zonata) exhibited a differential preference for fruits of different citrus cultivars, as significant differences were found between the infestation rates in different citrus fruits. Mandarin fruits were the insect’s preferred choice among other citrus fruit types, with the highest fruit fly infestation rate of 38.49%, followed by sweet oranges (19.38%) (Table 2). Bitter oranges exhibited a minimum fruit fly infestation rate (8.22%). The results revealed that the fruit fly infestation was concentrated on mandarins at the beginning of November, while no infestation was recorded or a slight infestation was found on sweet oranges and bitter oranges. The infestation then began to increase, reaching its peak, i.e., 35% on mandarins and 15 – 35% on sweet oranges and bitter oranges in November due to favorable environmental conditions. The infestation remained severe on mandarins until their harvest in mid-November.

The insect’s preference for mandarins over other citrus fruits during the season may be due to the fact that mandarins are the first citrus fruits to ripen, their fruit becoming juicy and appealing the fruit flies out in the field (Huang et al., 2022; Hasnain et al., 2025). This, in addition, would be due to the thinness of the fruit’s peel. Fruit ripeness is one of the factors affecting insect population density and larval survival rates. It also plays a significant role in influencing insect reproduction and growth parameters (El-Gendy et al., 2020). Sarwar et al. (2013) and Amin (2017) explained that the differences in the nutritional content of host fruits are part of a series of insect attractants and repellents, thereby distinguishing the preferred plant hosts. Ni et al. (2012) and El-Genaidy et al. (2024) indicated that the fruits have differences in sugars, amino acids, and other nutrients, which play a significant role in the insect’s structural and chemical reactions and play a fundamental role in the insect’s preference for fruits such as the mandarin. Moreover, Younes and Akel (2010) mentioned that sugar content varies across citrus fruit species, in addition to the differences in nutritional elements and amino acids. This prompted the insects, particularly fruit flies, to prefer mandarins due to their high sugar content and low acidity, unlike bitter oranges. Our results are also in line with the findings of Al-Khshemawee et al. (2020), who found that peach fruit flies (B. zonata) prefer mandarin fruits over oranges and other fruit types.

Moreover, results of fruit fly development parameters indicated that there were 9.84, 7.22, and 17.81% average failure rates for the eggs, larvae, and adults of B. zonata for the orange, mandarin and bitter orange fruits, respectively (Table 3). The biotic and abiotic factors, particularly prevailing temperature

 

Table 3: Life table parameters of peach fruit fly B. zonata on different citrus cultivars of Wasit Province, Iraq by during different months.

Citrus	October			November			December			average
	EM (%)	LM (%)	AM (%)	EM (%)	LM (%)	AM (%)	EM (%)	LM (%)	AM (%)
Orange	4.39	3.25	12.76	6.14	7.88	11.34	13.14	11.78	17.89	9.84
Mandarin	2.99	2.87	4.63	4.87	5.21	9.76	9.90	8.08	16.67	7.22
Bitter orange	8.34	10.76	18.97	15.68	16.98	20.21	32.56	17.19	19.65	17.81
Average	5.24	5.62	12.12	8.89	10.02	13.77	18.53	12.35	18.07
LSD	Citrus: 0.982		Months: 1.879		Egg: 1.987		Larvae: 0.879		Adults: 1.011

 

EM = egg mortality, LM = larval mortality, AM = adult mortality

 

and relative humidity, had a significant effect on the average mortality of fruit fly eggs, larvae, and adults as these values were 5.24, 8.89, and 18.53%, 5.62, 10.02 and 12.35% and 12.12, 13.77, and 18.07%, respectively for October, November, and December (Table 3). Our results are in line with the findings of Duyck et al. (2004) and Sarwar et al. (2023), who indicated that prevailing temperature and relative humidity in different months of the citrus fruit ripening time period would affect the fruit fly survival and development in the orchards. In December, the fruit fly population trend began to decrease compared to the previous month due to lower temperatures and because of the influence of various mortality factors.

 

Table 4: Average number of larvae of peach fruit fly B. zonata per fruit of different citrus cultivars of Wasit Province, Iraq during different months.

Type of citrus	Months			Average
	October	November	December
Orange	7	16	11	11.33
Mandarin	11	19	12	14.00
Bitter orange	6	13	9	9.33
Average	8	16	10.66
LSD	citrus cultivar: 2.331		months: 1.101

 

Duyck et al. (2004) studied the effect of different temperatures on some aspects of the life cycle of B. zonata and showed that a decrease in temperature from 30 to 15°C increased the duration of adult emergence from 8 to 53 days. Similarly, Abu-Ragheef et al. (2023) showed that a decrease in temperature from 30 to 20°C affected the duration of egg incubation and the larval development period, increasing it from 8.7 to 17.8 days. It also affected the number of eggs laid by B. zonata females from 218 to 70.8. These findings, including this study’s results, demonstrate that the environmental conditions can play a significant role in the development and population dynamics of insect pests such as fruit flies during fruiting seasons (Choudhary et al., 2021).

Regarding fruit fly maggots per infested fruit, significant differences were found between the fruits of three citrus cultivars. Mandarins were the B. zonata’s preferred fruits among other citrus fruit types, with the highest infestation rate (i.e.,14 larvae per fruit), followed by oranges with an infestation rate of 11.33 larvae per fruit and bitter oranges with 9.33 larvae per fruit (Table 4). These results revealed that the fruit fly infestation was concentrated on mandarins at the beginning of October, while no infestation was recorded on oranges and other citrus fruits. The infestation then began to increase, reaching its peak at the beginning of November. The infestation remained severe on mandarins until harvest, with the infestation rate on oranges rising to 21.86% by mid-November. This was due to the mandarin crop being harvested and the insect shifting to other fruit crops nearby. The average number of larvae was highest (14.00 larvae per fruit) on mandarins, and the lowest (9.33 larvae per fruit) on bitter oranges. The insect’s preference for mandarin fruits over other citrus fruits during the season may be because mandarins are the first citrus fruits to ripen and become juicy, and the color of their peel changes from green to yellow, in addition to the thinness of the fruit’s peel (El-Gendy et al., 2020). The ripeness of the fruit is one of the factors affecting the insect’s population density, the survival rate of the larval stages, and the number of eggs laid (El-Gendy et al., 2020).

Conclusions and Recommendations

Based on overall study results, it is concluded that the population density of peach fruit fly (B. zonata) significantly differs among the three sampling months as indicated by the average number of male fruit captures in pheromone traps. Moreover, B. zonata showed a differential infestation, development, and preference for different citrus fruit types, based on the degree of fruit infestation, varied mortality rates of eggs, larvae, and adults, and the average number of larvae per fruit. Mandarin fruits were the most preferred citrus fruit type for the insect, followed by oranges and bitter oranges, with the highest and lowest larval mortality recorded for December and November, respectively. These results would help in practical implications regarding the management of fruit fly infestations in citrus and other fruit orchards of Wasit province of Iraq.

Acknowledgements

The authors would like to thank Department of Plant Protection, College of Agriculture, and University of Wasit for their support and provide the equipment and tools.

Novelty Statement

The results of the study would help in practical implications for the better management of fruit fly infestations in citrus and other fruit orchards of Wasit province of Iraq

Author’s Contribution

Khais Muri Laabusi: Methodology and writing-original draft preparation

Hassnen T. Kareem: Software, data curation and supervision

Hasan Al-Khshemawee: Investigation, writing-review & editing and supervision

Generative AI or AI assisted technology statement

The authors declare that no generative artificial intelligence (AI) tools or AI assisted technologies were used in the preparation, writing, data analysis or editing of this manuscript.

Conflict of interest

The authors have no conflict of interest.

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