Research Article
Beyond Intrinsic Drive: The Role of External Support and Performance in Sustaining Pasundan Cattle Farming
Marina Sulistyati*, Anita Fitriani, Achmad Firman, Unang Yunasaf, Lilis Nurlina, Syahirul Alim, M. Ali Mauludin, Khansa N Salsabilah
Department of Social Economics, Faculty of Animal Husbandry, Padjadjaran University, Indonesia.
Abstract | Animal farming is highly demanded and preferred for maintaining stability in the food system. However, the problem is that nowadays fewer workers are interested in animal farming due to the high level of risks and sacrifices involved, especially in cattle farming. Meanwhile, Pasundan cattle are a type of local cattle characterized by low investment costs, high productivity, resilience, reproductive efficiency, and disease resistance. This study was conducted in West Java, Indonesia, during the last semester of 2025. It aims to determine how farmers’ motivation and livestock farming performance influence the sustainability of Pasundan cattle farming. The study employed a survey method involving 160 respondents from four areas with the largest Pasundan cattle populations in West Java. Data were collected using structured questionnaires, and respondents were selected through purposive sampling based on the following criteria: owning and raising Pasundan cattle and being located in one of the selected areas. Four variables were analyzed in this study: intrinsic motivation, extrinsic motivation, livestock farming performance, and sustainability of animal farming. Correlation analysis indicates that both intrinsic and extrinsic motivation have positive and significant relationships with livestock farming performance, while farming performance shows a positive and significant relationship with farming sustainability. Extrinsic motivation also demonstrates a direct positive relationship with sustainability, although with relatively weak strength. In contrast, intrinsic motivation does not show a significant direct relationship with farming sustainability. Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) analysis reveals that the sustainability of Pasundan cattle farming is significantly influenced by livestock farming performance and supported by extrinsic motivation, whereas the direct contribution of intrinsic motivation is not statistically significant. Collectively, the three endogenous variables explain 22.1% of the variation in farming sustainability, which falls within a moderate level of explanatory power. These findings indicate that the determinants of success in Pasundan cattle farming are not always straightforward and may be influenced by local social, cultural, and economic dynamics.
Keywords | Pasundan cattle, Structural equation modeling (SEM), Rural farming systems, Sustainable beef cattle farming, Farmer motivation, Farming performance
Received | December 19, 2025; Accepted | January 15, 2026; Published | January 24, 2026
*Correspondence | Marina Sulistyati, Department of Social Economics, Faculty of Animal Husbandry, Padjadjaran University, Indonesia; Email: [email protected]
Citation | Sulistyati M, Fitriani A, Firman A, Yunasaf U, Nurlina L, Alim S, Mauludin MA, Salsabilah KN (2026). Beyond intrinsic drive: The role of external support and performance in sustaining Pasundan cattle farming. Adv. Anim. Vet. Sci., 14(2):328-341.
DOI | https://dx.doi.org/10.17582/journal.aavs/2026/14.2.328.341
ISSN (Online) | 2307-8316
Copyright: 2026 by the authors. Licensee ResearchersLinks Ltd, England, UK.
This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
INTRODUCTION
The growing population has increased demand for animal protein in Indonesia, particularly beef. In 2024, national consumption of beef and buffalo meat increased by 11.71% compared to 2023, reaching 759.67 thousand tons, while domestic production reached only 496,250 tons, resulting in a deficit of 263,420 tons (Central Bureau of Statistics of Indonesia, 2024). This gap highlights the strategic importance of strengthening domestic livestock production to support national food security.
The livestock sector plays a strategic role in supporting food security, increasing rural household income, and conserving local genetic resources (Darmawan et al., 2023; Yusdja and Winarso, 2009). One approach to achieving meat self-sufficiency is the optimization of high-yield local cattle breeds (Suhardi and Susilo, 2022; Widyas et al., 2022). Pasundan cattle, a local breed from West Java, represent an important genetic resource due to their adaptability to marginal environments and suitability for smallholder farming systems (Tawaf et al., 2017). The existence of Pasundan cattle has been officially recognized by the government through the Minister of Agriculture Decree No. 1051/Kpts/SR.120/10/2014, Pasundan cattle are the result of long-term genetic adaptation involving Bos sundaicus and several Indonesian cattle breeds (Hadi et al., 2022). They are characterized by a dominant brick-red body color, which in some males turns black at sexual maturity, white pelvic and lower leg areas, and a darker dorsal line (Suryaka et al., 2024). The population of Pasundan cattle is primarily concentrated in West Java, including Pangandaran, Tasikmalaya, Ciamis, and Kuningan districts.
Despite this potential, the sustainability of Pasundan cattle farming remains under threat. Key challenges include low farmer regeneration, reliance on traditional production systems, and weak business performance (Munadi et al., 2021). Livestock are often raised not as a primary business commodity but instead serve as a symbol of social status or a source of labor. In many cases, livestock are maintained as a secondary household activity rather than a commercial enterprise, limiting incentives for innovation and long-term development. As a result, the Pasundan cattle population declined by 21.96% between 2014 and 2017 (Arifin and Sulasmi, 2019), raising concerns about the future viability of the breed.
Global challenges such as climate change, environmental degradation, and socio-economic dynamics in rural areas represent sustainability issues in the livestock sector that require in-depth study (Figueroa et al., 2025). A critical dimension of sustainability is farmer regeneration, defined as the continuity of actors, systems, and values across generations (Bilotto et al., 2024). The development of local cattle depends heavily on farmers as the main actors in the production system (Khofiyah et al., 2023). Previous studies emphasize that farmer motivation and performance are central determinants of livestock business sustainability (Kahfi et al., 2022; Nurlina et al., 2024).
Motivation drives farmers’ commitment, while performance reflects their capacity to manage production efficiently and adapt to changing conditions (Andarwati et al., 2018; Heryadi et al., 2022; Nurlina et al., 2024). Farmers with higher performance levels tend to demonstrate stronger business orientation, openness to innovation, and greater resilience in market competition. Empirical evidence also indicates a positive relationship between farmer motivation and livestock business sustainability (Lutfhiana et al., 2019).
However, in smallholder and subsistence farming systems, intrinsic motivation may differ from conventional entrepreneurial interpretations. Indicators such as achievement orientation, creativity, and managerial responsibility are often shaped by social, cultural, and institutional contexts, where livestock farming functions as a supplementary household activity rather than a primary business. Consequently, expectations regarding innovation and performance may be perceived differently by farmers. Therefore, understanding how internal motivations (work responsibility, cultural values, and job satisfaction) and farmer performance (skills, operational consistency, cooperative behavior, and on-farm creativity) contribute to the sustainability of Pasundan cattle farming is essential (Balzani and Hanlon, 2020; Maurer et al., 2021; Sarie et al., 2023).
This study therefore conceptualizes intrinsic motivation as a contextual construct embedded within the socio-economic conditions of Pasundan cattle smallholder farming. Accordingly, this study aims to analyze the effects of farmers’ motivation and livestock farming performance on the sustainability of Pasundan cattle farming, thereby identifying the key factors influencing its long-term sustainability (Nurlina et al., 2024). The findings are expected to provide a comprehensive understanding of factors that support or constrain the sustainability of smallholder livestock systems and to inform strategic efforts toward a more resilient and inclusive transformation of Pasundan cattle farming in Indonesia.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Research objects and subjects
The subjects of this study were Pasundan cattle farmers located in Kuningan, Ciamis, Pangandaran, and Tasikmalaya Regencies, which represent the main distribution areas of Pasundan cattle. The objects of this study consisted of farmer motivation (intrinsic and extrinsic motivation) and livestock farming performance as independent variables, and the sustainability of Pasundan cattle farming as the dependent variable.
Research location and respondent selection technique
This study was conducted from July to December 2025. Research locations were selected using a purposive sampling approach in major Pasundan cattle development areas in Kuningan, Ciamis, Pangandaran, and Tasikmalaya Regencies. These regions represent the core distribution zones of Pasundan cattle in West Java.
Respondents were selected using a two-stage sampling technique. First, purposive sampling was applied to establish a sampling frame based on the following criteria: (1) owning at least one Pasundan cattle, (2) having more than two years of farming experience, and (3) being directly involved in farm decision-making. Second, simple random sampling was employed to select respondents who met these criteria. The sample size was determined using the Slovin formula. From an estimated population of 267 eligible farmers, a total of 160 respondents were selected using a 5% margin of error, proportionally distributed across the four regencies (40 respondents per regency).
Data collection techniques
Primary data were collected through structured interviews using a closed-ended questionnaire administered to Pasundan cattle farmers. The questionnaire covered three main components: (1) farmer motivation (intrinsic and extrinsic), (2) livestock farming performance, and (3) sustainability of Pasundan cattle farming. Secondary data were obtained from government reports, scientific publications, and official statistical documents, providing contextual information on Pasundan cattle development and regional livestock conditions.
Variable operationalization
This study employed independent variables consisting of farmer motivation and livestock farming performance, as well as a dependent variable, namely the sustainability of Pasundan cattle farming. The variables and indicators observed in this study is presented in Table 1. All variables were operationalized according to their conceptual definitions and adjusted to the context of smallholder Pasundan cattle farming.
Farmer motivation (X)
Farmer motivation was defined as the driving force that encourages farmers to engage in and sustain livestock farming activities (Alam et al., 2014; Meryatun and Hasan, 2023). This variable consisted of intrinsic motivation (X1) and extrinsic motivation (X2).
Table 1: Variables and indicators observed in the study.
|
Variables |
Indicators |
|
|
Intrinsic motivation (X1) |
||
|
Main Livelihood |
X1.1 |
|
|
|
Success-Oriented Aspiration |
X1.2 |
|
Work Satisfaction |
X1.3 |
|
|
Cultural Value |
X1.4 |
|
|
Extrinsic motivation (X2) |
||
|
Economic Incentives |
X2.1 |
|
|
Institutional Support |
X2.2 |
|
|
Farmers’ Participation in Group |
X2.3 |
|
|
Market Access |
X2.4 |
|
|
Livestock farming performance (X3) |
||
|
Skills |
X3.1 |
|
|
Operational Consistency |
X3.2 |
|
|
Work Responsibility |
X3.3 |
|
|
Cooperative Behavior |
X3.4 |
|
|
On-Farm Creativity |
X3.5 |
|
|
Sutainability of animal farming (Y) |
||
|
Livestock Population |
Y1 |
|
|
Livestock Weight Gain |
Y2 |
|
|
Farm Income Growth |
Y3 |
|
Livestock farming performance (X3)
Livestock farming performance referred to farmers’ managerial behavior and work practices in managing Pasundan cattle farming. This variable was measured using indicators of skills, operational consistency, work responsibility, cooperative behavior, and on-farm creativity, which collectively reflected farmers’ capacity to manage their farming enterprises effectively.
Sustainability of animal farming (Y)
The sustainability of Pasundan cattle farming was defined as outcome-based performance reflecting the continuity and viability of livestock farming activities. This variable was measured using indicators of livestock population growth, livestock weight gain, and farm income growth, representing productivity and economic performance over time.
Research instrument testing
The research instrument was a closed-ended questionnaire using a three-point Likert scale. Prior to data collection, the instrument was tested for validity and reliability to ensure accurate and consistent measurement of the research variables. Content validity was assessed through expert judgment involving academics and field extension officers, ensuring the relevance and appropriateness of each item to the measured constructs (Yusup, 2018). Reliability was evaluated using Cronbach’s Alpha with SPSS, where a coefficient ≥ 0.7 indicated acceptable reliability.
All indicators were measured on an ordinal three-point Likert scale. The relationships among variables were analyzed using variance-based Partial Least Squares–Structural Equation Modeling (PLS-SEM) with SmartPLS, which is appropriate for ordinal data, does not require multivariate normality, and is suitable for predictive and exploratory research objectives.
Analytical methods
This study employed a mixed-methods approach using an explanatory sequential mixed-methods design (Creswell, 2013), in which quantitative data were collected and analyzed first, followed by qualitative interpretation to deepen the understanding of the quantitative results. The overall stages of the research process are illustrated in Figure 1. This study received ethical approval from the relevant Research Ethics Committee, and all respondents provided informed consent with guarantees of anonymity and data confidentiality.
Data analysis in this study was conducted through the following stages:
Table 2: Determination of interval classes for research variables.
|
No |
Variables |
Interval |
Category |
|
1 |
Instrinsic Motivation (X1) |
3.00 – 5.00 |
Low |
|
5.01 – 7.00 |
Moderate |
||
|
7.01 – 9.00 |
High |
||
|
2 |
Extrinsic Motivation (X2) |
4.00 – 6.67 |
Low |
|
6.68 – 9.33 |
Moderate |
||
|
9.34 – 12.00 |
High |
||
|
3 |
Livestock Farming Performance (X3) |
5.00 – 8.33 |
Low |
|
8.34 – 11.67 |
Moderate |
||
|
11.68 – 15.00 |
High |
||
|
4 |
Sustainability of Animal Farming (Y) |
3.00 – 5.00 |
Low |
|
5.01 – 7.00 |
Moderate |
||
|
7.01 – 9.00 |
High |
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
Farmer characteristics
The regulation on the categorization of productive working age in Indonesia was regulated under Labor Law No. 13 of 2003, which distinguished young/non-productive age (≤14 years), working/productive age (15–64 years), and non-productive age (>65 years) (Indonesia, 2003). As shown in Table 3, most respondents fell within the productive age category but were concentrated in older age groups. Advanced age contributed positively to accumulated experience and husbandry skills; however, it also tended to limit innovation capacity, technology adoption, creativity, and physical endurance (Seok et al., 2018; Setiyowati et al., 2022). This age structure indicates a regeneration gap that may weaken adaptive capacity and poses a long-term risk to the sustainability of Pasundan cattle farming.
Table 3: Characteristics of Pasundan cattle farmers respondents.
|
Characteristics |
Number of farmers (n=160) |
Percentage (%) |
|
Age |
||
|
15 – 64 years |
121 |
75.60 |
|
> 64 years |
39 |
24.40 |
|
Formal education Level |
||
|
No formal education |
16 |
10.00 |
|
Elementary school |
100 |
62.50 |
|
Junior High School |
32 |
20.00 |
|
Senior High School |
7 |
4.38 |
|
Higher Education |
5 |
3.12 |
|
Non-formal education |
||
|
Extension/ lectures/ training |
70 |
43.75 |
|
Extension and training |
90 |
56.25 |
|
Farming Experience |
||
|
<10 years |
17 |
10.62 |
|
10 – 20 years |
93 |
58.13 |
|
>20 years |
50 |
31.25 |
|
Main Occupation |
||
|
Farmer |
70 |
43.75 |
|
Non Farmer |
90 |
56.25 |
|
Number of Pasundan cattle owned |
||
|
≤ 2 heads |
109 |
68.12 |
|
3 – 5 heads |
24 |
15.00 |
|
>5 heads |
27 |
16.88 |
|
Farming Purpose |
||
|
Breeding |
145 |
91.00 |
|
Fattening |
3 |
2.00 |
|
Breeding and Fattening |
12 |
7.00 |
|
Membership in farmer groups |
||
|
Member |
133 |
83.12 |
|
Non-Member |
27 |
16.88 |
|
Land size |
||
|
<0.025 ha |
20 |
12.50 |
|
0.025 – 0.5 ha |
75 |
46.88 |
|
>0.5 ha |
65 |
40.62 |
|
Gender |
||
|
Male |
144 |
90.00 |
|
Female |
16 |
10.00 |
The education level of farmers was relatively low, with elementary school graduates dominating the sample (62.50%). Education influenced knowledge, managerial ability, and the quality of decision-making in farming enterprises (Listiana et al., 2020). Nevertheless, within small-scale rural systems, farming experience, social learning, and non-formal education often compensate for limited formal schooling (Lestari, 2019; Widayati et al., 2024). Even so, empirical evidence consistently shows that higher formal education facilitates technology adoption and the implementation of efficient and sustainable farming practices (Demera et al., 2024; Zanon et al., 2024). Thus, education remains a structural factor influencing the pace of modernization in livestock systems.
Given the structural nature of low formal education, capacity-building strategies must prioritize practical, experience-based learning approaches. The relatively high participation of farmers in non-formal education highlights the continued relevance of extension services as an effective mechanism for improving farmer capacity (Makatita et al., 2014). Along with the dynamic changes in livestock production systems, farmers were required to possess adequate knowledge, skills, and attitudes to adapt effectively (Sugiarto et al., 2019, 2025; Yiran and Stringer, 2016). More intensive engagement in extension activities enhances opportunities to translate knowledge into improved performance and sustainability outcomes.
Most farmers had long farming experience, reflecting maturity in practice and a strong understanding of local production conditions. This experiential capital supported business resilience, particularly in overcoming technical and environmental constraints, although management practices remained largely traditional (Sundari et al., 2009). With improved access to information and institutional support, such experience can serve as a foundation for transitioning toward more modern and sustainable management systems (Syafira et al., 2023; Yunasaf et al., 2024).
Pasundan cattle farming still primarily functioned as a secondary occupation, as indicated by 56.25% of farmers who had primary jobs outside livestock farming. This reduced time allocation and managerial focus, thereby constraining business growth and long-term sustainability. Similar patterns have been reported by Amam et al. (2024), who found that beef cattle farming in Indonesia is often treated as a side activity, with small herd sizes and livestock serving primarily as household savings rather than productive assets.
The secondary nature of livestock farming was reflected in small herd ownership, with most farmers keeping ≤2 head of cattle. Such limited scale restricts production capacity, capital accumulation, and technical efficiency, increasing vulnerability and reducing sustainability prospects. Woodhouse (2010) similarly noted that small-scale livestock enterprises tend to generate lower income and net returns due to reduced productivity and economic efficiency.
Therefore, efforts to enhance sustainability through herd expansion must be accompanied by improvements in time commitment, managerial capacity, and institutional support. Institutional mechanisms are particularly important in facilitating access to feed resources, capital, innovation, and collective management (Simamora, 2020). In this context, the high proportion of farmers participating in farmer groups (83.12%) represents valuable social capital that can support gradual scaling-up and management improvement.
The small operational scale was also associated with a production pattern dominated by breeding activities, which require relatively low capital, involve longer production cycles, and demand less intensive management. This pattern aligns with smallholder constraints and the biological characteristics of Pasundan cattle as a local genetic resource, but it limits opportunities for value addition through fattening systems. From a resource perspective, land ownership was relatively adequate, with most farmers owning more than 0.025 ha. This indicates latent potential for forage provision and cost efficiency, which could support scale expansion if accompanied by sufficient motivation and institutional facilitation.
Pasundan cattle farming was still predominantly managed by men (90%), reflecting socio-cultural norms that associate livestock activities with physical labor and position men as primary income earners (Santoso and Kususiyah, 2015). However, increasing women’s involvement particularly in decision-making and group-based activities may strengthen sustainability outcomes. Previous studies suggest that women’s participation in agriculture is often linked to stronger care-oriented values and environmental responsibility (Hill, 2009; Nadhira and Sumarti, 2017; Tourtelier et al., 2023). Expanding gender-inclusive participation therefore represents an underutilized pathway for enhancing sustainable livestock development.
Farmers motivation in pasundan cattle farming
Motivation functioned as a key driving force shaping farmers engagement in farm management, decision-making, and adaptive capacity. In this study, motivation was distinguished into intrinsic and extrinsic dimensions, reflecting internal values and satisfaction versus external stimuli such as economic incentives, policy support, and market access. This conceptual distinction aligns with Sanjaya and Suparta (2019) and Rasoki et al. (2017), who emphasized that farmers’ actions are directed by both internal psychological forces and external conditions.
Table 4: Farmers motivation in Pasundan cattle farming.
|
Research variable |
Code |
Categoty (% of respondents) |
||
|
Low |
Moderate |
High |
||
|
Intrinsic motivation |
X1 |
10.00 |
42.50 |
47.50 |
|
Extrinsic motivation |
X2 |
15.00 |
52.50 |
32.50 |
The results presented in Table 4 showed that farmers’ intrinsic motivation was classified in the high category (47.50%), reflected in success-oriented aspiration, cultural value, and work satisfaction in raising Pasundan cattle. This finding suggests that farmers motivation was not purely economic, but strongly embedded in social and cultural contexts. As a local genetic resource, Pasundan cattle carried symbolic and cultural meaning, encouraging farmers to maintain livestock even when it did not constitute their primary livelihood. Similar patterns were reported by Fitriani et al. (2020) among Pasundan cattle farmers in Tasikmalaya Regency and by Collado et al. (2015), who found that farmers’ preferences were often driven by intrinsic livestock characteristics rather than production performance alone.
High intrinsic motivation was reinforced by personal satisfaction derived from daily husbandry activities, pride in preserving local genetic resources, and adherence to inherited farming traditions. Comparable conditions were observed among beef cattle farmers in Southwest Maluku, where livestock farming was sustained by enjoyment and emotional attachment rather than economic returns alone (Haumahu et al., 2020). From a theoretical perspective, such intrinsic motivation can strengthen long-term sustainability, as farmers’ commitment is grounded in internal values rather than short-term incentives (Nurlina et al., 2024). Practically, this implies that development programs emphasizing cultural identity, farmer autonomy, and local wisdom such as livestock competitions and participatory training may be effective in reinforcing sustainable management behavior.
In contrast, extrinsic motivation among Pasundan cattle farmers was generally moderate (52.50%) and primarily associated with economic incentives, government programs, market access, feed availability, and extension support. This moderate level reflected field realities in which Pasundan cattle farming had not yet become the main livelihood, resulting in limited financial returns and uneven access to external support. Weak market governance and limited bargaining power further constrained the motivational impact of external stimuli, as previously noted by Tawaf (2017), who stated that marketing access for Pasundan cattle was relatively ineffective because farmers lacked the capacity to market their products directly, transaction patterns were still based on estimated live weight systems, and payment systems were dominated by credit arrangements, thereby weakening farmers’ bargaining positions.
These findings indicate that while extrinsic motivational factors were present, they were not sufficiently strong or consistent to generate higher business commitment. Therefore, strengthening extrinsic motivation through coherent operational policies, institutional support, and continuous technical assistance is essential to enhance farmer performance and sustainability (Maulana et al., 2021). Policy implications include improving access to tailored microfinance, strengthening farmer groups and cooperatives, enhancing price transparency, and ensuring equitable extension services. Such interventions are expected to complement strong intrinsic motivation and support the long-term sustainability of Pasundan cattle farming systems.
Livestock farming performance in pasundan cattle farming
Livestock farming performance reflected farmers effectiveness in managing Pasundan cattle and was assessed through skills, operational consistency, cooperative behavior, and on-farm creativity (Nurlina et al., 2024). As shown in Table 5, overall farming performance was classified in the high category (55.50%), indicating that most farmers possessed basic managerial and technical capacities supporting farm operation.
Table 5: Livestock farming performance in Pasundan cattle farming.
|
Research variable |
Code |
Category (% of Respondents) |
||
|
Low |
Moderate |
High |
||
|
Livestock farming performance |
X3 |
2.50 |
42.50 |
55.00 |
High performance was closely associated with farmers’ long practical experience, with most respondents having more than ten years of involvement in cattle farming. Such experience enhanced farmers ability to address husbandry constraints and maintain business continuity, consistent with Aziz et al. (2020), who emphasized experience as a key asset in sustaining livestock enterprises. Routine management practices, including regular feeding schedules and daily animal care, were generally well implemented, reflecting adequate operational consistency (Maulana et al., 2021). Previous studies have shown that perseverance and dedication, particularly when accompanied by openness to innovation, contribute positively to livestock business sustainability (Artananda et al., 2025).
Despite relatively strong basic performance, Pasundan cattle farming remained dominated by traditional management systems, with limited technology adoption. This condition constrained gains in productivity and efficiency, suggesting that high performance was largely driven by experience-based practices rather than technological advancement. However, the relatively high level of farmer group participation provided a favorable institutional foundation for improvement, as these groups facilitated information exchange, collective action, and access to development programs.
From a practical perspective, strengthening institutional roles emerged as a critical strategy for enhancing performance and sustainability. Institutional support is essential for coordinating incentives, facilitating interaction among stakeholders, and accelerating technology diffusion in small-scale livestock systems. A study by Avalos et al. (2024) on dairy and beef cattle farming in Costa Rica demonstrated that institution-led, community-based learning such as farmer field schools and demonstration farms effectively improved technology adoption and innovation. Accordingly, similar institutional interventions could help transform experience-based performance into more efficient and sustainable Pasundan cattle farming systems.
Sustainability of pasundan cattle farming
The sustainability of animal farming reflected farmers’ ability to maintain and develop their livestock enterprises over the long term (Hadi et al., 2022). In this study, sustainability was assessed through livestock population, livestock weight gain, and farm income growth. As shown in Table 6, the sustainability level was classified as high (83.75%), indicating relatively strong business continuity and resilience.
Table 6: Sustainability of Pasundan cattle farming.
|
Research variable |
Code |
Category (% of Respondents) |
||
|
Low |
Moderate |
High |
||
|
Sustainability of animal farming |
Y |
5.00 |
26.25 |
68.75 |
Although the adoption of feed technology and production management had not yet been optimal, routine and disciplined husbandry practices such as providing feed at relatively consistent times and monitoring livestock conditions were still able to support livestock weight gain. This condition reflected farmers basic skills and field experience played an important role in maintaining livestock production performance.
Sustainability was most strongly reflected in livestock population maintenance. Most farmers retained breeding cows and calves, indicating an orientation toward herd regeneration rather than short-term profit maximization. Pasundan cattle functioned as productive assets or living savings, providing economic flexibility when sales were conducted to meet household needs. This low-intensity selling pattern reduced financial pressure, as production costs were minimized through the use of local feed resources, family labor, and simple management systems. Tawaf (2017) similarly reported that farmers perceived Pasundan cattle farming as profitable because implicit costs were rarely accounted for and sales were need-based rather than market-driven.
However, this condition primarily reflected a survival-oriented sustainability rather than growth-oriented business development. While enterprises were able to persist, their capacity for income expansion and competitiveness remained limited. From a practical perspective, economic sustainability needs to be strengthened through targeted interventions that support business upgrading and value enhancement in small-scale beef cattle systems (Simamora et al., 2024). Programs such as the Pasundan cattle grant scheme demonstrated potential to increase farmers’ income in the medium term through structured breeding systems, particularly via calf sales at the post-weaning stage (Fitriani et al., 2020). These findings underline the importance of aligning sustainability strategies not only with continuity but also with gradual business development.
Correlation between motivation, livestock farming performance, and sustainability of animal farming among pasundan cattle farmers
The validity test indicated that the indicator “Main Livelihood” did not align with the underlying construct and was therefore excluded from the model. The remaining indicators demonstrated significant correlations with their respective constructs, confirming their adequacy in representing farmers’ motivational and behavioral dimensions.
Spearman Rank correlation analysis (Table 7) revealed that intrinsic motivation (X1) was positively and significantly correlated with extrinsic motivation (X2) (r = 0.524; p < 0.01), suggesting that farmers with strong internal drive were also responsive to external stimuli such as government programs, incentives, and market access. Intrinsic motivation was also positively correlated with livestock farming performance (X3) (r = 0.447; p < 0.01), indicating that internal motivation supported consistency in farm management practices (Greiner and Gregg, 2011). However, intrinsic motivation showed no significant direct correlation with sustainability of animal farming (Y) (r = 0.099; p > 0.05), implying that internal drive alone was insufficient to directly enhance sustainability outcomes under traditional and low-technology farming conditions.
Extrinsic motivation (X2) exhibited positive and significant correlations with livestock farming performance (X3) (r = 0.499; p < 0.01) and sustainability (Y) (r = 0.160; p < 0.05), although the latter relationship was relatively weak. This finding suggested that external support contributed to sustainability, but its effect remained limited due to uneven access and suboptimal implementation (Swami and Parthasarathy, 2024).
Livestock farming performance (X3) was positively and significantly correlated with sustainability (Y) (r = 0.329; p < 0.01), indicating that improvements in skills, discipline, cooperation, and management effectiveness were directly associated with higher sustainability levels. Overall, these results suggest that livestock farming performance functioned as a key mediating variable linking farmers’ motivation to sustainability outcomes,
Table 7: Correlation between motivation, livestock farming performance, and sustainability of animal farming.
|
Spearman’s rho |
X1 |
X2 |
X3 |
Y |
|
|
X1 |
Correlation coefficient |
1.000 |
0.524** |
0.447** |
0.099 |
|
Sig. (2-tailed) |
. |
0.000 |
0.000 |
0.213 |
|
|
N |
160 |
160 |
160 |
160 |
|
|
X2 |
Correlation coefficient |
0.524** |
1.000 |
0.499** |
0.160* |
|
Sig. (2-tailed) |
0.000 |
. |
0.000 |
0.043 |
|
|
N |
160 |
160 |
160 |
160 |
|
|
X3 |
Correlation coefficient |
0.399** |
0.495** |
1.000 |
0.329** |
|
Sig. (2-tailed) |
0.000 |
0.000 |
. |
0.000 |
|
|
N |
160 |
160 |
160 |
160 |
|
|
Y |
Correlation coefficient |
0.099 |
0.160* |
0.329** |
1.000 |
|
Sig. (2-tailed) |
0.213 |
0.043 |
0.000 |
. |
|
|
N |
160 |
160 |
160 |
160 |
|
* Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed). ** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).
where motivated farmers tended to translate their drive into improved management practices rather than directly into sustainability gains (Nurlina et al., 2024).
SEM-PLS analysis of motivation, livestock farming performance, and sustainability of animal farming among pasundan cattle farmers
SEM-PLS was used to develop theory in exploratory research aimed at explaining variance in dependent variables (Hair et al., 2017). In this study, SEM-PLS was applied to examine the direct and indirect effects of farmers’ motivation and livestock farming performance on the sustainability of Pasundan cattle farming. The structural relationships among constructs are illustrated in Figure 2, which shows the pathways linking intrinsic motivation, extrinsic motivation, livestock farming performance, and sustainability of animal farming.
The SEM measurement model in Figure 2 indicated that several indicators had low or negative weights, including work satisfaction (−0.676), farmers’ participation in group (−0.211), on-farm creativity (−0.010), and work responsibility (−0.131). These negative loadings did not necessarily indicate measurement error, but rather reflected the empirical context of small-scale smallholder farming. Under conditions of limited resources, high risk, and structural constraints, attributes such as achievement orientation, creativity, responsibility, and participation tended to manifest as perseverance in maintaining existing farming practices, even when these practices were not always efficient. Thus, the relationship between motivational characteristics and performance was contextual and not always linear.
The indicators work responsibility and farmers’ participation in group reflected farmers persistence in managing livestock amid limited resources; however, such persistence did not automatically translate into effective farming outcomes. The livestock farming performance construct in this study represented the effectiveness of farming outcomes rather than merely the intensity of involvement. These findings highlight the importance of developing measurement instruments that are more sensitive to the specific conditions of smallholder livestock systems.
For the sustainability construct, farm income growth showed the strongest contribution (0.819), while livestock weight gain (0.211) and livestock population (0.164) contributed more modestly. This pattern indicates that sustainability in this study was more strongly reflected as social and economic sustainability rather than biological sustainability. Similar results were reported by Setiadi et al. (2021), who found that social factors played a more prominent role in beef cattle farming sustainability under small-scale rural conditions, where biological performance tended to be relatively homogeneous due to the use of local breeds and limited reproductive technologies.
The structural paths in Figure 2 showed relatively weak coefficients. Intrinsic motivation had almost no direct effect on sustainability (0.030; p > 0.05), while extrinsic motivation (0.228) and livestock farming performance (0.295) had moderate positive effects. These findings indicate that intrinsic motivation operated mainly through indirect pathways, particularly via livestock farming performance. In smallholder systems, capability-based performance which reflected in skills, discipline, cooperation, creativity, and responsibility functioned as an operational foundation linking motivation to actual farming outcomes.
The coefficient of determination value (R2= 0.221) indicated that the model explained only 22.1% of the variation in sustainability of animal farming, implying that approximately 78% of the influencing factors remained outside the model as residual variance. The Variance Inflation Factor values (VIF < 3.3) confirmed the absence of multicollinearity, indicating stable relationships among variables. This result reflects the complexity of sustainability of animal farming in West Java, which is shaped by intertwined social, economic, and environmental factors. Variables not included in the model likely involve access to capital, market price stability, supply chain efficiency, and institutional and policy support, such as microcredit availability, government subsidies, price fluctuations, and the role of middlemen.
Environmental and resource constraints further influenced sustainability outcomes. Pasundan cattle farming was often conducted on marginal land or integrated with other farming activities, while natural feed quality particularly grass protein content was frequently insufficient to support optimal growth and animal health. In addition, genetic quality, breeding standards, and access to animal health services and vaccination played an important role. These findings emphasize that sustainability of animal farming depends not only on human capital, but also on capital availability, policy support, and natural resource conditions. Accordingly, future research should incorporate indicators related to institutional support, market stability, resource access (land, water, and feed), and technical and animal health services.
Path coefficient results (Table 8) confirmed that livestock farming performance (β = 0.295; T = 2.980; p = 0.003) and extrinsic motivation (β = 0.228; T = 2.386; p = 0.017) had positive and significant effects on sustainability, whereas intrinsic motivation showed no significant direct effect (β = 0.030; T = 0.304; p = 0.761). These findings are consistent with (Fauziyah et al., 2017), who show that personal characteristics do not directly affect performance; however, when combined with technical competence, they can enhance beef cattle farming performance.
|
Path coefficient |
Coefficient |
T statistics |
P values |
|
Livestock farming performance -> Sustainability of animal farming |
0.295 |
2.980 |
0.003 |
|
Extrinsic motivation -> Sustainability of animal farming |
0.228 |
2.386 |
0.017 |
|
Intrinsic motivation -> Sustainability of animal farming |
0.030 |
0.304 |
0.761 |
In the Pasundan cattle farming system, which was integrated with rice farming and operated traditionally, the space for creative behavior remained limited. Farming success was more strongly determined by inherited practices than by innovation. Similar patterns were observed among Jabres cattle farmers in Central Java, where deviations from established practices were perceived as socially risky (Santoso et al., 2025). Although farmers creativity was conceptually important, this study found that it had not yet translated into measurable improvements in sustainability indicators, such as livestock population, body weight gain, and income. In smallholder systems, creativity tended to take the form of small-scale adaptive practices such as local feed adjustments, simple barn modifications, and daily risk management which functioned more to stabilize and enhance resilience than to drive short-term production or income gains.
Accordingly, future studies are encouraged to refine the measurement of creativity by focusing on implemented innovations or by examining its mediating role through variables such as knowledge acquisition and technology adoption. Within traditional Pasundan cattle farming systems, compliance with established norms and perseverance remained the primary drivers of farming performance, while innovation had not yet assumed a dominant role.
The work responsibility indicator also showed a negative weight, reflecting systemic limitations. High perseverance and discipline did not automatically result in better performance without adequate support in the form of quality feed, animal health services, livestock genetics, and market access. The findings of Rohaeni et al. (2024) on beef cattle farming sustainability in Kalimantan stated that external variables, including government agencies, institutions, and academic institutions working in synergy, influenced sustainability.
Overall, the SEM results indicate that the most reliable pathway toward sustainability operates through improvements in tangible livestock farming performance, particularly reproduction, mortality reduction, and feed efficiency. Extrinsic motivation through economic incentives, government assistance, access to credit, and institutional support emerged as the primary driving force, while intrinsic motivation, on-farm creativity, and work responsibility were insufficient to function optimally without adequate system support. Similar patterns have been observed among beef cattle farmers in East Java who utilized credit financing to expand farm scale and improve feed quality (Mahendri et al., 2016), as well as among agricultural cooperatives in Nepal that provided financial and marketing support to protect farmers from monopolistic practices (Neupane et al., 2022).
These findings emphasize that livestock development strategies cannot rely solely on farmers’ internal motivation, but must be supported by resources, technology, and strong institutions to translate positive behaviors into sustainable outcomes. Accordingly, intervention efforts should prioritize improving technical skills, adopting need-based technologies, and strengthening economic, social, and environmental sustainability indicators (Fauziyah et al., 2017). These efforts are expected to support the sustainability of Pasundan cattle as a local genetic resource integrated within the agricultural systems of West Java.
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
The primary constraints faced by Pasundan cattle farmers are systemic and technological rather than individual. While cultural motivation plays an important role in sustaining farmers persistence and social continuity, it is insufficient to ensure sustainability of animal farming without adequate institutional and technological support. Therefore, development efforts should shift toward creating enabling conditions that allow farmers’ perseverance to be translated into stable income and long-term sustainability. Farmers’ creativity mainly functions as an adaptive mechanism at the micro level and has not yet been fully captured by aggregate sustainability indicators, indicating that the moderate R² value reflects the inherent complexity of smallholder livestock systems rather than a limitation of the analytical model. Future research should therefore adopt sustainability metrics that are more sensitive to process innovation, feed-use efficiency, and resource management.
From a practical perspective, sustainability can be strengthened through improved access to technology, including subsidized concentrate feeds or collective input procurement facilitated by cooperatives, training on feed formulation using local resources, and the expansion of artificial insemination services and routine pregnancy checks to support herd growth. Policy performance indicators should prioritize tangible outcomes such as increases in farmers’ net income, reductions in livestock mortality, and improvements in animal health rather than focusing solely on farmer characteristics. Institutional strengthening should be emphasized through the functional roles of farmer groups and cooperatives as channels for input distribution, animal health and reproductive services, and collective marketing, thereby enhancing farmers’ bargaining power and reducing structural constraints without requiring fundamental institutional transformation.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We would like to thank the Ministry of Education, Culture, Research, and Technology for supporting this research through the 2023 Research and Community Service Program. We also extend our sincere appreciation to the Dean of the Faculty of Animal Science, Universitas Padjadjaran, and to the Pasundan cattle farmers who participated as respondents in this study.
NOVELTY STATEMENT
This study provides new empirical evidence that the sustainability of local cattle farming is not determined solely by farmers intrinsic motivation and cultural commitment, but is strongly shaped by farming system capacity and external institutional and economic support that enable motivation to be translated into tangible performance and sustainability outcomes. By integrating farmers’ motivation, livestock farming performance, and sustainability using an SEM-PLS approach in a smallholder Pasundan cattle context, this study offers a replicable analytical framework applicable to other rural local cattle systems with similar constraints.
AUTHOR’s CONTRIBUTION
MS: Conceptualization, data curation, formal analysis, writing original draft, writing review and editing, supervision, resources. AF: Conceptualization, data curation, methodology, formal analysis, writing original draft, writing review and editing, supervision, resources. AF: Conceptualization, validation, supervision, writing review and editing. UY: Conceptualization, validation, supervision, writing review and editing. LN: Conceptualization, validation, supervision, writing review and editing. SA: Conceptualization, validation, supervision, writing review and editing. MAM: Conceptualization, validation, supervision, writing review and editing. KNS: Data curation, formal analysis, writing original draft, writing review and editing, resources.
Generative AI and AI-assisted technology statement
The authors declare that no generative AI or AI-assisted technologies were used to generate, analyze, or interpret the research data. Generative AI tools were used only to assist in checking grammar, language clarity, and readability of the manuscript during the revision process. All scientific content, interpretations, and conclusions remain the full responsibility of the authors.
Conflict of interest
The authors have declared no conflict of interest.
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