Research Article

Prospects of Saffron (Crocus sativus L.) Farming in Mountainous Agriculture of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan

Hayat Zada1, Muhammad Zamin2*, Shahzad Ahmad3, Moudassir Habib4, Muhammad Shakur5, Irfan Ullah2, Taufiq Nawaz6 and Shafi Ullah7

1Agriculture Extension, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan; 2Department of Horticulture, The University of Agriculture Swat, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan; 3 Nuclear Institute for Food & Agriculture (NIFA), Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan; 4Rural Economies Centre of Excellence, University of Southern Queensland, Toowoomba, Australia; 5MSR Landscape and Sustainable Agriculture, Dubai, United Arab Emirates; 6 Department of Agriculture, University of Swabi, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan; 7 Dubai, Municipality, United Arab Emirates.

Received | Oct 06, 2025; Accepted | Nov 10, 2025; Published | January 26, 2026;

*Correspondence | Muhammad Zamin, The University of Agriculture Swat, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan; Email: [email protected]

Citation | Zada, H., M. Zamin, S. Ahmad, M. Habib, M. Shakur, I. Ullah, T. Nawaz and S. Ullah. 20256. Prospects of saffron (Crocus sativus L.) farming in mountainous agriculture of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan. Sarhad Journal of Agriculture, 42(1): 162-170.

DOI | https://dx.doi.org/10.17582/journal.sja/2026/42.1.162.170

Keywords | Spice crop, Crocus sativus, Cultivation, High value crops, Livelihood diversification.

Copyright: 2026 by the authors. Licensee ResearchersLinks Ltd, England, UK.

This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

Introduction

Mountainous agriculture in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (KP), Pakistan, is largely characterized by subsistence farming, fragmented landholdings, and low economic returns (Rahman et al., 2020). Farmers in these areas often struggle with poor market access, limited resources, and the impacts of climate change. Climate change directly impacted plant distribution, species composition, disease and pest infestation and agricultural productivity (Akram et al., 2022). To address these challenges and improve rural livelihoods, the Government of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa launched an Annual Development Programme (ADP) scheme titled “Introduction and promotion of Saffron cultivation in Potential Districts of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa” with the objective of transforming smallholder farming systems towards high value crops.

Saffron (Crocus sativus L.), known as the “red gold,” is one of the most expensive spices in the world due to its culinary, medicinal, and industrial uses (Abdullaev & Espinosa-Aguirre, 2004). It has a growing demand in both domestic and international markets, particularly among health-conscious consumers, making it a promising crop for poverty alleviation and economic uplift of marginalized farming communities (Fernández, 2018). Globally, saffron has been valued not only for its food and pharmaceutical potential but also as a source of foreign exchange and a driver of rural employment, particularly for women engaged in labor intensive harvesting and post-harvest handling (Melnyk et al., 2020).

The cultivation of saffron offers several additional advantages for mountainous and temperate regions such as Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (KP). It requires relatively less water compared to traditional crops, thus aligning well with climate change adaptation strategies (Tavakkoli et al., 2019). Furthermore, saffron farming can contribute to efficient utilization of degraded forest lands, enhance biodiversity, and support ecological restoration if managed sustainably (Koocheki & Khajeh-Hosseini, 2008). Beyond economic benefits, saffron cultivation has potential to empower rural women, diversify farmers’ income, and reduce pressure on fragile ecosystems.

Despite its prospects, saffron production in new areas faces numerous challenges. These include unavailability of quality corms, prevalence of diseases, sensitivity to specific climatic conditions (temperature, humidity, and soil type), and lack of technical knowledge among farmers (Ghorbani, 2008). Post-harvest handling, including stigma collection, drying, and storage, is also critical for ensuring product quality and market competitiveness. Additionally, weak value chains, poor marketing systems, and limited exposure of farmers to successful saffron models hinder its commercialization in Pakistan.

Considering these factors, systematic studies are needed to identify suitable agro-climatic pockets for saffron farming in KP, optimize production technologies, and address challenges related to pests, weeds, nutrition, and post-harvest practices. The present study was therefore designed to assess the prospects of saffron farming as a turning point in mountain agriculture of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (KP), with specific objectives to identify suitable locations for saffron cultivation, assess the saffron quality delivery to farmers and follow ups, evaluate the post-cultivation status of saffron across different zones and highlight key challenges and their possible mitigation strategies.

Materials and Methods

Study area

The study was conducted in the 15 potential saffron growing districts of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (KP), Pakistan, during the summer of 2025. The selection of these districts was based on the agroclimatic condition as shown in Table 1. The saffron corms were provided to the potential farmers of the target districts by the Agriculture Extension Department Khyber Pakhtunkhwa under the project titled “Introduction & promotion of saffron cultivation in the potential districts of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa” which is an Annual Development Program (ADP) funded project. Approximately 8700 Saffron corms were provided to each of the selected farmers for an average area of one Kanal per farmer. The Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (KP) is geographically diverse, extending from plains and valleys to high altitude mountainous regions, with significant variations in temperature, rainfall, and humidity. The province is dominated by high mountains and marginal lands, where traditional farming is constrained by low productivity and fragmented holdings. Since saffron (Crocus sativus L.) requires relatively cooler temperatures and well drained soils, the study focused on agro-ecological pockets most suitable for saffron cultivation under the provincial government’s initiative of saffron commercialization. Table 2 presents the key climatic characteristics of selected districts, while Figure 1 shows the geographical distribution of study sites.

Sampling and data collection

A multistage sampling technique was adopted. In the first stage, purposive sampling was applied to identify potential saffron-growing districts. From each

 

Table 1: Climatic conditions of selected districts of khyber pakhtunkhwa

District	Avg. Annual Temp (°C)	Annual Rainfall (mm)	Avg. Humidity (%)	Altitude (m a.s.l.)	Land Type (Mountain/Plain)
Bajaur	18	850	57	900–1900	Mountain/Plain
Buner	16.7	1120	64	900–2100	Mountain/Plain
Chitral (Lower)	11.8	920	63	1500–3500	High Mountain
Dera ismail khan	25	300	48	150–350	Plain (Arid)
Hangu	20.4	650	52	850–1100	Plain
Karak	21.3	480	45	600–1100	Semi-arid Plain
Kohat	24	550	49	500–1100	Plain
Lower Swat	15.4	1200	65	980–2900	Mountain/Valley
Malakand	17.8	1025	60	950–2100	Mountain/Plain
North waziristan	22	500	46	800–1800	Mountain/Plain
Orakzai	19	700	53	900–2200	Mountain/Plain
Shangla	13.9	1350	68	1200–3100	Mountain
South waziristan (Lower)	19.1	720	50	1000–1900	Mountain/Plain
Torghar	18.6	750	55	800–1700	Mountain
Upper swat	13.5	1300	67	1400–3000	Mountain

 

Source: KP Meteorological department, 2024.

 

Table 2: Socio-demographic factors (farmer’s age, education level and farm characteristics)

District	Age (years)	Education (Years)	Topography (1=plain, 2=mountain)	Irrigation status (1=irrigated, 2=rainfed)
Bajour	38.0ab	10.0 ab	1. 0 c	1.0a
Buner	50.7ab	14.7 ab	1.7 ab	1.0a
Chitral lower	30.3b	16.7 a	1.7 ab	1.0a
D. Ikhan	38.3ab	10.0 ab	1.0 c	1.0a
Hangu	59.0a	12.0 ab	1.0 c	1.0a
Karak	48.7ab	9.3 ab	1.0 c	1.0a
Kohat	51.0ab	9.3 ab	1.0 c	1.0a
Lower swat	32.7ab	5.3 ab	1.0 c	1.0a
Malakand	56.3ab	8.0 ab	1.0 c	1.0a
North waziristan	52.7ab	10.0 ab	1.0 c	1.0a
Orakzai	37.7ab	10.7 ab	1.0 c	1.0a
Shangla	47.7ab	16.0 a	1.0 c	2.0b
South waziristan lower	30.0b	16.0 a	1.0 c	1.0a
Torghar	47.7ab	4.0 b	2.0 a	2.0b
Upper Swat	39.0ab	16.0 a	1.0 c	1.0a
Average	44.0	11.2	1.2	1.1

Source: field survey, 2025

district, at least three villages were selected using a random number table. The selected districts included Bajaur, Buner, Chitral (Lower), Dera Ismail Khan, Hangu, Karak, Kohat, Lower Swat, Malakand, North Waziristan Orakzai, Shangla, South Waziristan (Lower), Torghar and Upper Swat.

Primary data were collected from saffron farmers during the summer of 2025, using structured interviews and questionnaires. The questionnaire was pre-tested prior to the actual survey to eliminate ambiguities and irrelevant questions.

Data collected

The survey gathered both qualitative and quantitative data on farmer characteristics, quality of planting materials, crop performance, key challenges faced during crop season and farmers suggestions to promote saffron cultivation in the province as detailed below:

Socio-demographic factors: Age (years), education level (years) and Land characteristics such as topography (mountain/plain), irrigation source (rainfed/irrigated).

Quality of Planting material: Corm size (small/medium/large) and health status.

Crop performance: Yield (saffron flowers/stigma per kanal), and baby corm production.

Challenges/Constraints: Disease, Insect, climate,

 

weeds and rodents

Farmers recommendations/suggestions to promote Saffron production in KP

Quality corm (optimum corm size and disease free),

Site selection (cooler climate)

Training for production technology during crop season

• Optimize planting time
• Type of soil selection
• Training and exposure visits
• Fencing and isolating planting area
• Weed management
• Using proper fertilizer application
• Taking care of irrigation on time
• Market linkages to develop
• On time supply of corms for sowing

Data analysis

Collected data were entered, coded, and analyzed using Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) version 26.0. Descriptive statistics (mean, percentages) were employed to summarize socio-economic characteristics and production practices. Cross-tabulation and comparative analysis across districts were used to identify performance trends and regional differences. Qualitative responses from open-ended questions were grouped thematically to highlight farmer perceptions, challenges, and suggested improvements.

Results and Discussion

The results of the primary data obtained from farmers are presented in the following tables and discussed as follows;

Socio-demographic factors (Farmer’s age, education level and farm characteristics)

The socio-demographic characteristics of saffron farmers in selected districts of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (KP) are summarized in Table 2, highlighting factors influencing adoption and sustainability. The average farmer age was 44 years, indicating a middle-aged, experienced group capable of balancing managerial decisions and physical farm work, which supports adoption of high-value crops (Khan et al., 2021; Mehmood et al., 2020). Farmers’ average education level was 11.2 years, showing that they are matric passed which is sufficient for understanding technical cultivation practices. Educated farmers are more aware of saffron’s economic and medicinal value, enhancing participation in promotion programs (Singh et al., 2019; Ahmad et al., 2022). Most saffron cultivation (80%) occurred on plain, irrigated lands in Dera Ismail Khan, Hangu, Karak, Kohat, and Malakand, while mountainous, rainfed areas like Shangla and Torghar had limited cultivation due to shallow soils and restricted irrigation. Nevertheless, saffron’s adaptability to marginal and sloping lands makes it suitable for mountain farming systems with low conventional crop returns (Kumar et al., 202; ). All the planting sites had irrigation system except Shangla and Torghar where the Saffron farming was practiced on rainfed land. Rainfed areas experienced water stress and delayed sprouting, consistent with observations in Mediterranean saffron regions (). Overall, moderate education, experience, and access to irrigation positively influence saffron adoption. Transitioning from cereals to saffron provides viable livelihood diversification and supports KP’s objectives of enhancing farmer income and land productivity. To strengthen adoption, targeted capacity-building initiatives, including field schools, exposure visits, and technical guidance on post-harvest management, are recommended (; ).

Quality of planting material (size and health) and germination percentage:

The quality of planting material, including corm size, health, and germination percentage, varied across saffron-growing districts in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (Table 2). As per the farmers response various corm sizes were obtained for cultivation such as (33% small, 30% medium and 33% large). As far as the quality of corms in concerned, 20% infested or diseased corms were recorded. Corm health ratings ranged from good (1) to poor (2), influencing germination and subsequent crop success.

Germination percentage differed significantly among districts, with the highest observed in Malakand (95%) and Torghar (92.7%), while the lowest was in Dera Ismail Khan (52.3%) and Orakzai (55%). Districts with poor corm health or suboptimal soil and climatic conditions showed reduced germination, highlighting the critical role of high quality, disease-free corms for successful saffron cultivation (Fernández, 2020; Ahmad et al., 2022).

These results align with previous studies indicating that corm size, corm health, and germination rate are key determinants of saffron yield and plant vigor (Kumar et al., 2020; Rashid et al., 2021). Larger, healthy corms generally establish better and produce higher stigma yield, while compromised corms contribute to uneven germination and reduced productivity.

Ensuring the provision of quality corms through certified nurseries, proper storage, and disease management is essential for enhancing saffron productivity. Targeted training for farmers on corm selection, handling, and pre-planting treatment can further improve germination success and overall crop performance.

 

Table 3: Quality of planting material (size and health) and germination percentage

District	Size of corm (small, medium, large)	Health of corms/corms (1=Good 2=poor)	Germination %age
Bajour	2.0 ab	1.0 b	91.0ab
Buner	1.0 c	1.0b	82.7cd
Chitral lower	1.0 c	1.0b	80.0de
D ikhan	2.0 ab	2.0a	52.3I
Hangu	1.0 c	2.0a	75.0fg
Karak	2.0 ab	1.0 b	82.3cd
Kohat	2.0 ab	1.0b	72.3gh
Lower swat	3.0a	1.0-b	91.0-a
Malakand	1.0 c	1.0b	95.0a
North waziristan	1.0 c	1.0b	77.3ef
Orakzai	2.0 ab	1.0b	55.0I
Shangla	3.0 a	1.7a	67.7h
South waziristan lower	3.0 a	2.0-a	82.3cd
Torghar	3.0 a	1.0b	92.a
Upper swat	3.0 a	2.0a	90.0bc
Average	2.0	1.3	79.1

 

Source: Field survey, 2025

 

Crop performance (flower and corm production)

Saffron flower and corm production varied considerably across districts of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (Table 4). The highest flower yield was recorded in Chitral lower (316 flowers/kanal), followed by Lower Swat (257) and Upper Swat (200), whereas Buner produced the lowest (55), and Dera Ismail Khan, Hangu, Kohat, and Orakzai recorded no flowers. Flower initiation is strongly influenced by plant health, corm quality, and prevailing climatic conditions, including temperature and soil moisture (Fernández, 2020; Kumar et al., 2020).

No corms/corms were harvested during the first year in any district, consistent with the perennial nature of saffron and its typical one-year lag before corm multiplication (Rashid et al., 2021). Districts with higher flower yields generally had healthier planting material and favorable irrigation and soil conditions, highlighting the importance of corm quality, proper site selection, and agronomic management for successful saffron cultivation. These findings are in line with earlier studies indicating that saffron productivity depends on a combination of environmental factors and management practices, including irrigation, soil fertility, and corm quality (Ahmad et al., 2022; Dar et al., 2018). Ensuring high quality planting material and adopting proper agronomic practices are crucial to improve flower yield and subsequent corm production in KP’s saffron-growing areas.

 

Table 4: Crop performance (flower and corm production)

District	Yield (flowers per kanal)	Yield (Corm per kanal)
Bajour	100.0 bc	0
Buner	54.7 bc	0
Chitral lower	316.7 a	0
D Ikhan	0.0 c	0
Hangu	1.0 c	0
Karak	91.7 bc	0
Kohat	0.0 c	0
Lower swat	257.0 ab	0
Malakand	116.7 abc	0
North waziristan	98.0 bc	0
Orakzai	0.0 c	0
Shangla	90.0 bc	0
South waziristan lower	86.7 bc	0
Torghar	140.0 abc	0
Upper swat	200.0 abc	0
Average	103.4	0

 

Source: Field survey, 2025

 

Farmers perceptions on challenges/constraints during crop season

Farmers reported multiple challenges during saffron cultivation, with disease (47.3%) and climatic factors such as temperature and rainfall (42%) identified as the primary constraints, followed by insects (7.9%), weeds (6%), and rodents (4%) as secondary constraints (Table 5). The prevalence of these challenges varied across districts, reflecting local climatic and environmental conditions. For instance, disease incidence was highest in Hangu, Malakand, and Orakzai, while climatic stress was more pronounced in Buner and Malakand. These findings highlight that site selection, including soil quality, irrigation availability, and microclimatic suitability, is critical for saffron productivity (Kumar et al., 2020; Fernández, 2020). Diseases, particularly corm rot and fungal infections, are major yield-limiting factors and require effective management practices such as certified corm use, proper spacing, and drainage (Ahmad et al., 2022; Rashid et al., 2021). Similarly, adverse climatic conditions can delay sprouting, reduce flowering, and affect stigma quality, emphasizing the need for adaptive measures such as mulching, timely irrigation, and temperature management. Overall, farmers’ perceptions underline that disease control and climate adaptation are pivotal for enhancing saffron yield in KP. Integrated crop management practices and localized technical guidance can mitigate these constraints and improve overall productivity.

 

Table 5: Farmers perceptions on challenges/constraints during crop season

District	Disease %age	Insect %age	Climate %age	Weeds %age	Rodents %age
Bajour	30	30	40	0	0
Buner	0	0	100	0	0
Chitral lower	0	0	10	90	0
D Ikhan	0	0	70	0	30
Hangu	100	0	0	0	0
Karak	50	0	50	0	0
Kohat	40	30	0	0	0
Lower swat	50	0	50	0	30
Malakand	100	0	100	0	0
North waziristan	50	0	50	0	0
Orakzai	100	0	0	0	0
Shangla	50		50	0	0
South waziristan lower	40	0	60	0	0
Torghar	50	50	0	0	0
Upper swat	50	0	50	0	0
Average	47.3	7.9	42.0	6.0	4.0

 

Source: Field survey, 2025

 

Farmers recommendations/suggestions to promote saffron production in KP

Farmers provided several recommendations to enhance saffron production in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (Table 6). The majority (90%) emphasized the importance of using high-quality, disease-free corms of appropriate size and selecting sites with suitable temperature conditions. These factors are critical for successful establishment and optimal flowering (Fernández, 2020; Kumar et al., 2020). In addition, 60% of respondents highlighted the need for proper soil selection and pre-sowing training or exposure visits to established saffron-growing regions, supporting capacity building and adoption of best practices (Ahmad et al., 2022). About 50% focussed on-field technical guidance and developing market linkages during the crop season, while 40% emphasized optimizing planting time. Other practical recommendations included timely irrigation and fertilization (30%) and fencing or weed management (10%), reflecting farmers’ attention to agronomic and crop protection measures. Overall, these suggestions underscore that saffron promotion in KP requires a combination of quality planting material, site suitability, technical training, and market support. Implementing these measures can improve crop productivity, ensure economic viability, and support farmers’ livelihoods through high value crop adoption (Rashid et al., 2021; Dar et al., 2018).

 

Table 6: Farmers recommendations/suggestions to promote Saffron production in KP

S.No	Farmers recommendation	Percent response
1	Quality corm (optimum corm size and disease free)	90
2	Site selection (cooler climate)	90
3	Training for production technology during crop season	50
4	Optimize planting time	40
5	Type of soil selection	60
6	Training and exposure visits	60
7	Fencing and isolating planting area	10
8	Weed management	10
9	Using proper fertilizer application	30
10	Taking care of irrigation on time	30
11	Market linkages to develop	50
12	On time supply of corms for sowing	30

 

Source: Field survey, 2025

 

Conclusions and Recommendations

The study demonstrates that saffron cultivation holds significant potential for diversifying income and improving livelihoods in mountain agriculture systems of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan. Quality, disease-free corms and suitable sites with appropriate climate and irrigation availability are the key factors in determining the success of saffron cultivation. Therefore, the successful expansion of saffron in KP requires provision of certified corms, optimized site selection, integrated pest and disease management, capacity building programs, and development of value chains to ensure sustainable productivity, economic viability, and livelihood enhancement in the region.

Acknowledgements

The authors gratefully acknowledge the valuable support of the Agriculture Extension Department Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, particularly the dedicated field staff for their timely assistance in data collection related to saffron cultivation across the target districts. Their cooperation, commitment, and field-level insights were instrumental in ensuring the accuracy and completeness of this study. Appreciation is also extended to the participating farmers for sharing their experiences and observations, which greatly enriched the findings of this research.

Novelty Statement

This study provides the first empirical assessment of saffron introduction in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, linking agro-ecological performance with farmer livelihoods and climate adaptability. The research establishes baseline productivity indicators while identifying localized constraints such as disease and climatic stress, offering original evidence to guide sustainable, high value crop diversification in mountainous communities.

Author’s Contribution:

Hayat Zada: Contributed in conceptualization, supervision and data collection.

Muhammad Zamin: Contributed in conceptualization, drafting and analysis.

Shahzad Ahmad and Moudassir Habib: Contributed in data collection and review of manuscript.

Muhammad Shakur and Taufiq Nawaz: Contributed in analysis and discussion of results.

Irfan Ullah and Shafi Ullah: Contributed in review of literature and helped in analysis.

Generative AI or AI assisted technology statement

The authors declare that no generative AI was used to conceive, analyze, or interpret the research data.

Conflict of interest:

The authors have declared no conflict of interest

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