PUJZ_41_1

Introduction

Birds are an important component of Pakistan’s rich natural biodiversity, displaying an incredible diversity that charms both bird and nature lovers (Grimmett et al., 2008, 2016). Pakistan, stretching from the peaks of the Himalayas to the deep offshore islands of the Arabian Sea, and from fertile plains to arid deserts, is home to an astonishing diversity of bird species, making it a vital habitat for both resident and migratory birds. Because of its diverse topography, Pakistan experiences a wide range of weather conditions. Pakistan is a notable bird-watching destination in the Indian subcontinent, with over 700 species of birds documented (Grimmett et al., 2016; Aslam et al., 2022).

Pakistan’s varied avifauna includes migratory birds that come here from faraway regions at different times of the year. These migratory birds find refuge in Pakistan’s hospitable settings (Grimmett et al., 2008), making Pakistan an important resting place on their lengthy treks (Altaf, 2016). The birdlife of the country is not only fascinating, but it also plays an important role in maintaining ecological balance and conserving the natural beauty of this unique area (Roberts, 1991, 1992).

Birds around the world are facing threats due to human activities (Douglas et al., 2023; Irshad et al., 2025) and environmental changes (Matthews et al., 2022). The primary factors driving declines in bird populations include habitat loss and fragmentation caused by deforestation, agricultural expansion (Douglas et al., 2023), urban development (Humbal et al., 2023), and infrastructure growth (Bodo et al., 2021; Khan et al., 2024). Climate change disrupts migratory routes, reproductive habits, and food availability, making survival increasingly difficult for many species (Isah et al., 2023; Shakil et al., 2023). Pollution, particularly from pesticides, heavy metals, and plastic waste, harms bird health (Adekanmi, 2021) and reproductive success (Faiz, 2022; Hussain and Tanveer, 2023; Laraib et al., 2024a). Additionally, illegal hunting, poaching, and the trapping of wild birds for sale or consumption pose significant risks, especially to endangered and migratory species (Lavadinović et al., 2021). Collisions with structures, electrical lines, and wind turbines, along with predation by non-native species like house cats and rodents, further exacerbate mortality rates (Travers, 2023). These combined pressures threaten global bird diversity and disrupt ecosystems where birds play crucial roles in pollination, seed dispersal, and pest control (García et al., 2024).

The country’s climate zones range from the harsh winters of the northern highlands to the blazing heat of the southern deserts. These climatic changes create distinct habitats that support a diverse array of bird species that have evolved to various temperature and precipitation patterns. Pakistan is rich in wetlands, rivers, lakes, and coastal areas that provide critical habitat for both resident and migratory waterfowl. Every year, migratory birds flock to wetlands (Altaf et al., 2018; Hussain et al., 2025). A wide variety of bird species use these sources of water for nesting, feeding, and resting. Hence the current study was designed to find out the diversity of birds (including both visiting and resident) of birds along the River Chenab in Punjab, Pakistan.

Materials and Methods

Study area

The Chenab River, which runs across the Indian subcontinent, originates in the Himalayas of Northern India (Singh et al., 1997), flows through Jammu and Kashmir in India (Khadse et al., 2016), and enters Pakistan in the province of Punjab (Altaf et al., 2015). As one of the region’s major rivers, the Chenab River plays an important role in supporting agriculture (Hassan and Hassan, 2017) and providing water supplies to the communities along its route (Rehman et al., 2016). It eventually merges with the Sutlej River to form the Panjnad River, which finally merges at the great Indus River. This river system provides a lifeline for the region’s residents, facilitating agriculture, transportation, and a variety of other socioeconomic activities (Figure 1). The Sutlej River converges with the Chenab River close to Uch Sharif in the Bahawalpur district of Punjab, Pakistan, creating the Panjnad River. The Panjnad River subsequently travels southwest and converges with the Indus River close to Mithankot in Rajanpur District, Punjab, Pakistan.

Biodiversity

The riverine landscape includes a mix of riparian vegetation, cultivated fields, sandbanks, and shallow wetlands, providing diverse ecological habitats including plant diversity which attracts avifauna diversity. The collection included 120 plants from 51 families belonging to 105 genera, with 40 dicot families dominating with 85 genera and 97 plant species. Three families, 13 genera, and 16 plant species were identified in monocots. A few species of pteridophytes and bryophytes were also discovered in the vicinity. Furthermore, the angiospermic group was divided into two groups: dicots (n=96 species) and monocots (n=17 species), with the important families Poaceae and Cyperaceae. In terms of plant habit, 89 herbaceous plants, 16 shrubs, and 15 tree species were discovered in the Chenab River. Herbs dominated this site, including Marsilea quadrifolia, Azolla pinnata, Osmunda regalis, Cynodon dactylon, and Ranunculus muricatus. Shrubs included Calotropis procera and Ipomoea carnea, while trees included Acacia nilotica and Broussonetia papyrifera. The diversity of birds, mammals, fishes, and herptiles (Qadir, 2010; Altaf, 2016; Umair et al., 2019; Altaf et al., 2020, 2023) was also reported from the Chenab River are documented by various wildlife biologists.

Methodology

Field surveys were conducted from 2018 to 2023 to collect the information about bird’s diversity of Chenab River. Data were collected through direct and indirect method.

Direct observation

Data evaluators counted avian species in the study area using binoculars (Altaf, 2010) or telescopes (Altaf et al., 2018) to detect birds in the distance (Altaf, 2016). This method involves directly monitoring birds (Ali and Akhtar, 2005) and recording their numbers (Ali et al., 2011; Bibi et al., 2016; Isah et al., 2023).
The team was constituted on the Bird photographers whose name are (Ahmed Birdography, Sajjad Tufail, Muhammad Ayaz Mehmood, Sajid Saeed, Asim Bashir, Arshad Aashraf, Jawad Ahmad, Azmat Raza, Ali Usman Baig, Atif Riaz Baba, Zagham Awan, Ehtasham Ul Haq, Tahir Abbas Awan, Ali Hasaan, Tahir Manzoor Aatir, Usama Tabani, Jamal Leghari, Naila Shafi, Aasif Latif, Muhammad Asif Sherazi and Imran Bhutto) to photograph the birds species in the study area, which were then evaluated later on the available Field guides. This method is particularly useful for identifying birds that are difficult to observe directly or are only present for a brief duration of time.
In the study region, the researchers used acoustic rhythmus to record bird vocalizations (Altaf, 2010; Kazam et al., 2022), which were then rigorously studied to identify the species present (Grimmett et al., 2008; Grimmett et al., 2016). This strategy is especially useful for identifying birds that are hard to observe directly or just active during dawn and dusk when visibility is confine (Kazam et al., 2022).

Indirect observation

This study particularly for indirect sighting were carried out to explore the cryptic species and to ensure the presence of certain species in the region nest structure and designs and selection of material in nests. The types of nests and their locations can reveal important information about the bird species that inhabit in the area. A certain type of nest, for example, may indicate the presence of a particular species (Lee et al., 2017).
We investigated the research area for bird carcasses (Altaf, 2016), which can provide important information regarding the Apex predator species diversity and its presence in the region. The location and condition of corpses can also reveal information about the circumstances that led to the bird’s death (Ali et al., 2016, 2017; Altaf, 2016).
We discussed with residents, such as farmers and hunters, to learn about the region’s bird species. Locals may be aware of the existence of specific species or the places in which they like to spend time, and this knowledge may be utilized to familiarize future observations (Isah et al., 2023).

Statistical analysis

“PAST version 2.17C” Computer-based software was used to calculate indices of local bird data (Hammert, 2001).

Results and Discussion

The extensive surveys were conducted throughout the Chenab river from 2018 to 2023 which reveals the huge potential of avian influx in the area and counted with a total of 211 bird species that found our research region, totaling a surprising 1349 in number (Table 1). The bird community’s characteristics were shown by different measurements, including dominance at 0.04022, Simpson’s diversity index at 0.9598, and Shannon’s diversity index at 4.289, displaying a diversity of avian wonders. Brillouin exhibited diversity with a score of 4.058, and Menhinick demonstrated richness with a score of 5.745. Margalef’s abundance index was 29.14, and equitability was 0.8014, indicating harmony. Fisher alpha was 70.17, Berger-Parker was 0.1475, and Chao-1 indicated potential richness at 270.8. In this research, these numbers exemplify the diversity of the avian realm, making our river even more beautiful (Table 2).

Table 1: Status, diversity, distribution, feeding type of birds along river Chenab.

Sr.	Common Name	Scientific Name	No.	Order	Family	Status	Distribution	Feeding type
1	Grey Francolin	Francolinus Pondicerianus	7	Galliformes	Phasianidae	LC	R	Omnivore
2	Lesser Whistling-duck	Dendrocygna javanica	20	Anseriformes	Anatidae	LC	NB	Omnivore
3	Greylag Goose	Anser anser	18	Anseriformes	Anatidae	LC	NNB	Herbivore
4	Lesser White-fronted Goose	Anser erythropus	3	Anseriformes	Anatidae	VU	NNB	Herbivore
5	Bar-headed Goose	Anser indicus	199	Anseriformes	Anatidae	LC	NNB	Herbivore
6	Knob-billed Duck	Sarkidiornis melanotos	4	Anseriformes	Anatidae	LC	P	Omnivore
7	Ruddy Shelduck	Tadorna ferruginea	72	Anseriformes	Anatidae	LC	NNB	Omnivore
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Sr.	Common Name	Scientific Name	No.	Order	Family	Status	Distribution	Feeding type
8	Cotton pygmy-goose	Nettapus coromandelianus	3	Anseriformes	Anatidae	LC	R	Herbivore
9	Indian Spot-billed Duck	Anas poecilorhyncha	13	Anseriformes	Anatidae	LC	R	Omnivore
10	Little Grebe	Tachybaptus ruficollis	14	Podicipediformes	Podicipedidae	LC	R	Carnivore
11	Painted Stork	Mycteria leucocephala	37	Ciconiiformes	Ciconiidae	NT	NNB	Carnivore
12	Asian Openbill	Anastomus oscitans	2	Ciconiiformes	Ciconiidae	LC	R	Carnivore
13	Black Stork	Ciconia nigra	121	Ciconiiformes	Ciconiidae	LC	P	Carnivore
14	Woolly-necked Stork	Ciconia episcopus	14	Ciconiiformes	Ciconiidae	NT	R	Carnivore
15	Red-naped Ibis	Pseudibis papillosa	2	Pelecaniformes	Threskiornithidae	LC	NNB	Carnivore
16	Glossy Ibis	Pseudibis Falcinellus	4	Pelecaniformes	Threskiornithidae	LC	NNB	Carnivore
17	Eurasian Spoonbill	Platalea leucorodia	11	Pelecaniformes	Threskiornithidae	LC	NNB	Omnivore
18	Yellow Bittern	Dupetor flavicollis	5	Pelecaniformes	Ardeidae	LC	NB	Omnivore
19	Black Bittern	Lxobrychus sinensis	3	Pelecaniformes	Ardeidae	LC	NB	Omnivore
20	Cinnamon Bittern	Lxobrychus cinnamomeus	3	Pelecaniformes	Ardeidae	LC	R	Omnivore
21	Great Bittern	Botaurus stellaris	2	Pelecaniformes	Ardeidae	LC	NNB	Omnivore
22	Black-crowned Night Heron	Nycticorax nycticorax	2	Pelecaniformes	Ardeidae	LC	R	Omnivore
23	Indian Pond Heron	Ardeola grayii	8	Pelecaniformes	Ardeidae	LC	R	Omnivore
24	Grey Heron	Ardea cinerea	6	Pelecaniformes	Ardeidae	LC	NNB	Omnivore
25	Purple Heron	Ardea purpurea	7	Pelecaniformes	Ardeidae	LC	R	Omnivore
26	Cattle Egret	Bubulcus ibis	4	Pelecaniformes	Ardeidae	LC	R	Insectivore
27	Great Egret	Bubulcus albus	26	Pelecaniformes	Ardeidae	LC	R	Piscivore
28	Intermediate Egret	Mesophoyx intermedia	3	Pelecaniformes	Ardeidae	LC	NNB	Carnivore
29	Little Egret	Egretta garzetta	5	Pelecaniformes	Ardeidae	LC	R	Carnivore
30	Western Reef Egret	Egretta gularis	1	Pelecaniformes	Ardeidae	LC	NB	Piscivore
31	Little Cormorant	phalacrocorax niger	4	Suliformes	Phalacrocoracidae	LC	NNB	Piscivore
32	Great Cormorant	phalacrocorax carbo	7	Suliformes	Phalacrocoracidae	LC	NNB	Piscivore
33	Common Kestrel	Falco tinnunculus	2	Falconiformes	Falconidae	LC	NNB	Carnivore
34	Red-necked Falcon	Falco chicquera	1	Falconiformes	Falconidae	NT	NNB	Carnivore
35	Peregrine Falcon	Falco pereginus	2	Falconiformes	Falconidae	LC	NNB	Carnivore
36	Eurasian Hobby	Falco subbuteo	2	Falconiformes	Falconidae	LC	NB	Carnivore
37	Black Winged kite	Elanus caeruleus	7	Accipitriformes	Elanidae	LC	R	Carnivore
38	Black kite	Milvus migrans	4	Accipitriformes	Accipitridae	LC	R	Carnivore
39	Osprey	Pandion haliaetus	7	Accipitriformes	Pandionidae	LC	NNB	Carnivore
40	Oriental Honey-buzzard	Pernis ptilorhynchus	1	Accipitriformes	Accipitridae	LC	R	Carnivore
41	Egyptian Vulture	Neophron percnopterus	2	Accipitriformes	Accipitridae	EN	R	Carnivore
42	Crested Serpent Eagle	Spilornis cheela	5	Accipitriformes	Accipitridae	LC	NB	Carnivore
43	Eurasian Marsh Harrier	Circus aeruginosus	11	Accipitriformes	Accipitridae	LC	NNB	Carnivore
44	Hen Harrier	Circus cyaneus	1	Accipitriformes	Accipitridae	LC	NNB	Carnivore
45	Shikra	Accipiter badius	8	Accipitriformes	Accipitridae	LC	R	Carnivore
46	Long-legged Buzzard	Buteo rufinus	7	Accipitriformes	Accipitridae	LC	NNB	Carnivore
47	Indian Spotted Eagle	Aquila hastata	5	Accipitriformes	Accipitridae	VU	R	Carnivore
48	Steppe Eagle	Aquila nipalensis	2	Accipitriformes	Accipitridae	EN	NNB	Carnivore
49	Eastern Imperial Eagle	Aquila heliaca	1	Accipitriformes	Accipitridae	VU	NNB	Carnivore
50	Bonelli's Eagle	Aqtauila fascia	1	Accipitriformes	Accipitridae	LC	R	Carnivore
51	Booted Eagle	Hieraaetus Pennatus	1	Accipitriformes	Accipitridae	LC	NNB	Carnivore
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Sr.	Common Name	Scientific Name	No.	Order	Family	Status	Distribution	Feeding type
52	Western Water Rail	Rallus aquaticus	4	Gruiformes	Rallidae	LC	NNB	Omnivore
53	Baillon's Crake	Porzana pusilla	3	Gruiformes	Rallidae	LC	P	Omnivore
54	Ruddy-breasted Crake	Porzana Fusca	4	Gruiformes	Rallidae	LC	NNB	Omnivore
55	White-breasted Waterhen	Amaurornis phoenicurus	2	Gruiformes	Rallidae	LC	R	Omnivore
56	Brown Crake	Amaurornis akool	1	Gruiformes	Rallidae	LC	R	Omnivore
57	Eurasian Coot	Fulica atra	4	Gruiformes	Rallidae	LC	R	Omnivore
58	Great Thick-knee	Esacus recurvirostris	15	Charadriiformes	Burhinidae	NT	R	Carnivore
59	Pheasant-tailed Jacana	Hydrophasianus chirurgus	10	Charadriiformes	Jacanidae	LC	R	Omnivore
61	Greater Painted Snipe	Rostratula benghalensis	5	Charadriiformes	Rostratulidae	LC	R	Omnivore
62	Northern Lapwing	Vanellus vanellus	2	Charadriiformes	Charadriidae	NT	NNB	Insectivore
63	White tailed Lapwing	Vanellus leucurus	3	Charadriiformes	Charadriidae	LC	NNB	Insectivore
64	Red-wattled Lapwing	Vanellus indicus	2	Charadriiformes	Charadriidae	LC	R	Insectivore
65	Little Ringed Plover	Charadrius dubius	2	Charadriiformes	Charadriidae	LC	R	Insectivore
66	Kentish Plover	Charadrius alexandrinus	3	Charadriiformes	Charadriidae	LC	R	Insectivore
67	Common Snipe	Gallinago Gallinago	4	Charadriiformes	Scolopacidae	LC	NNB	Insectivore
68	Eurasian Wigeon	Anas penelope	3	Anseriformes	Anatidae	LC	NNB	Herbivorous
69	Mallard	Anas platyrhynchos	1	Anseriformes	Anatidae	LC	NNB	Omnivore
70	Northern shoveler	Spatula clypeata	11	Anseriformes	Anatidae	LC	NNB	Insectivore
71	Red-crested Pochard	Netta rufina	4	Anseriformes	Anatidae	LC	NNB	Omnivore
72	Ferruginous Duck/White eyed pochard	Aythya nyroca	3	Anseriformes	Scolopacidae	NT	NNB	Omnivore
73	Black-tailed Godwit	Limosa limosa	7	Charadriiformes	Scolopacidae	NT	P	Insectivore
74	Eurasian Curlew	Numenius arquata	6	Charadriiformes	Scolopacidae	NT	NNB	Insectivore
75	Spotted Redshank	Tringa arythropus	22	Charadriiformes	Scolopacidae	LC	NNB	Insectivore
76	Common Redshank	Tringa totanus	2	Charadriiformes	Scolopacidae	LC	NNB	Insectivore
77	Common Greenshank	Tringa nebularia	4	Charadriiformes	Scolopacidae	LC	NNB	Insectivore
78	Green Sandpiper	Tringa ochropus	2	Charadriiformes	Scolopacidae	LC	NNB	Insectivore
79	Wood Sandpiper	Tringa glareola	1	Charadriiformes	Scolopacidae	LC	NNB	Insectivore
80	Common Sandpiper	Actitis hypoleucos	1	Charadriiformes	Scolopacidae	LC	NNB	Insectivore
81	Temminck's Stint	Calidris temminckii	1	Charadriiformes	Scolopacidae	LC	NNB	Insectivore
82	Little Pratincole	Glareola lactea	4	Glareolidae	Glareolidae	LC	NB	Insectivore
83	Pallas's Gull/ Great Black-headed Gull	Ichthyaetus ichthyaetus	1	Glareolidae	Laridae	LC	NNB	Omnivore
84	Heuglin's Gull	Larus heuglini	1	Charadriiformes	Laridae	LC	NNB	Insectivore
85	Black-headed Gull	Chroicocephalus ridibundus	7	Charadriiformes	Laridae	LC	NNB	Omnivore
86	Gull billed Tern	Geliochelidon nilotica	1	Charadriiformes	Laridae	LC	R	Insectivore
87	Whiskered Tern	Childonias hybrida	25	Charadriiformes	Laridae	LC	NNB	Carnivore
88	Eastern Spotted Dove or Chinese Dove	Streptopelia chinensis	2	Columbiformes	Columbidae	LC	R	Granivore
89	Eurasian Collared Dove	Streptopelia decaocto	1	Columbiformes	Columbidae	LC	R	Granivore
90	Laughing Dove	Stegmatopelia senegalensis	3	Columbiformes	Columbidae	LC	R	Granivore
91	Yellow-footed Green Pigeon	Treron phoenicopterus	3	Columbiformes	Columbidae	LC	R	Granivore
92	Rose ringed Parakeet	Psittacula krameri	7	Psittaciformes	Psittaculidae	LC	R	Omnivore
93	Jacobin Cuckoo	Clamator jacobinus	1	Cuculiformes	Cuculidae	LC	NB	Insectivore
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Sr.	Common Name	Scientific Name	No.	Order	Family	Status	Distribution	Feeding type
94	Common Hawk Cuckoo	Hierococcyx varius	3	Cuculiformes	Cuculidae	LC	NB	Insectivore
95	Asian koel	Eudynamys scolopaceus	1	Cuculiformes	Cuculidae	LC	NB	Omnivore
96	Greater Coucal	Centropus sinensis	4	Cuculiformes	Cuculidae	LC	R	Carnivore
97	Barn Owl	Tyto alba	3	Strigiformes	Tytonidae	LC	R	Carnivore
98	Indian Scops Owl	Otus bakkamoena	2	Strigiformes	Strigidae	LC	R	Carnivore
99	Short-eared Owl	Asio flammeus	1	Strigiformes	Strigidae	LC	NNB	Carnivore
100	Spotted Owlet	Athene brama	10	Strigiformes	Strigidae	LC	R	Carnivore
101	Eurasian Eagle Owl	Bubo bubo	2	Strigiformes	Strigidae	LC	R	Carnivore
102	Asian Barred Owlet	Glaucidium cuculoides	1	Strigiformes	Strigidae	LC	R	Carnivore
103	Savanna Nightjar	Caprimulgus affinus	1	Caprimulgiformes	Caprimulgidae	LC	NB	Insectivore
104	Little Swift	Apus affinis	1	Apodiformes	Apodidae	LC	R	Carnivore
105	Common Hoopoe	Upupa epops	6	Bucerotiformes	Upupidae	LC	R	Carnivore
106	Indian Roller	Coracias benghalensis	8	Coraciiformes	Coraciidae	LC	R	Carnivore
107	White throated kingfisher	Halcyon smyrnensis	2	Coraciiformes	Alcedinidae	LC	R	Insectivore
108	Common Kingfisher	Alcedo atthis	9	Coraciiformes	Alcedinidae	LC	R	Piscivore
109	Pied kingfisher	Ceryle rudis	5	Coraciiformes	Alcedinidae	LC	R	Piscivore
110	Asian Green Bee eater	Meropes orientalis	6	Coraciiformes	Meropidae	LC	R	Insectivore
111	Blue-tailed Bee Eater	Merops philippinus	12	Coraciiformes	Meropidae	LC	NB	Insectivore
112	Indian Grey Hornbill	Ocyceros birostris	9	Bucerotiformes	Bucerotidae	LC	R	Omnivore
113	Blue Throated Barbet	Megalaima asiatica	1	Piciformes	Megalaimidae	LC	R	Frugivore
114	Coppersmith Barbet	Megalaima haemacephala	1	Piciformes	Megalaimidae	LC	R	Frugivore
115	Eurasian Wryneck	Jynx torquilla	5	Piciformes	Picidae	LC	NB	Insectivore
116	Brown Fronted Woodpecker	Dendrocopos auriceps	1	Piciformes	Picidae	LC	R	Omnivore
117	Yellow crowned Woodpecker	Dendrocopos mahrattensis	1	Piciformes	Picidae	LC	R	Omnivore
118	Lesser Goldenback/ Black-rumped Flameback	Dinopium benghalense	6	Piciformes	Picidae	LC	R	Omnivore
119	Rosy Pipit	Anthus roseatus	2	Passeriformes	Motacillidae	LC	NNB	Insectivore
120	Western Yellow Wagtail	Motacilla flava	2	Passeriformes	Motacillidae	LC	P	Insectivore
121	Large Pied Wagtail/ White browed wagtail	Motacilla maderaspatensis	1	Passeriformes	Motacillidae	LC	R	Insectivore
122	Isabelline Shrike	Lanius isabellinus	2	Passeriformes	Laniidae	LC	NNB	Carnivore
123	Rufous-backed Shrike	Lanius schach	5	Passeriformes	Laniidae	LC	R	Carnivore
124	Black Drongo	Dicrurus macrocercus	1	Passeriformes	Dicruridae	LC	R	Insectivore
125	Indian Golden Oriole	Oriolus kundoo	1	Passeriformes	Oriolidae	LC	NB	Omnivore
126	White throated Fantail	Rhipidura albicollis	4	Passeriformes	Rhipiduridae	LC	NNB	Insectivore
127	White browed Fantail	Rhipidura aureola	1	Passeriformes	Rhipiduridae	LC	R	Insectivore
128	Indian Paradise flycatcher	Terpsiphone paradisi	9	Passeriformes	Monarchidae	LC	NB	Insectivore
129	Black-headed Jay	Garrulus lanceolatus	1	Passeriformes	Corvidae	LC	R	Omnivore
130	Rufous Treepie	Dendrocitta vagabunda	3	Passeriformes	Corvidae	LC	R	Omnivore
131	Rook	Corvus frugilegus	1	Passeriformes	Corvidae	LC	NNB	Omnivore
132	House Crow	Corvus splendens	1	Passeriformes	Corvidae	LC	R	Omnivore
133	Streak throated Swallow	Petrochelidon fluvicola	1	Passeriformes	Hirundinidae	LC	R	Insectivore
134	Wire tailed Swallow	Hirundo smithi	2	Passeriformes	Hirundinidae	LC	R	Insectivore
135	Crested Lark	Galerida cristata	5	Passeriformes	Alaudidae	LC	R	Omnivore
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Sr.	Common Name	Scientific Name	No.	Order	Family	Status	Distribution	Feeding type
136	Red-vented Bulbul	Pycnonotus cafer	5	Passeriformes	Pycnonotidae	LC	R	Omnivore
137	Rufous-vented Prinia	Prinia burnesii	1	Passeriformes	Pellorneidae	NT	R	Insectivore
138	Graceful Prinia	Prinia gracillis	2	Passeriformes	Cisticolidae	LC	R	Insectivore
139	Yellow-bellied Prinia	Prinia flaviventris	3	Passeriformes	Cisticolidae	LC	R	Insectivore
140	Ashy Prinia	Prinia socialis	3	Passeriformes	Cisticolidae	LC	R	Insectivore
141	Plain Prinia	Prinia inornata	6	Passeriformes	Cisticolidae	LC	R	Insectivore
142	Clamorous Reed Warbler	Acrocephalus stentoreus	1	Passeriformes	Acrocephalidae	LC	NNB	Insectivore
143	Grasshopper Warbler	Locustella naevia	2	Passeriformes	Locustellidae	LC	NNB	Insectivore
144	Moustached Warbler	Acrocephalus melanopogon	1	Passeriformes	Acrocephalidae	LC	NNB	Insectivore
145	Common Chiffchaff	Phylloscopus collybita	1	Passeriformes	Phylloscopidae	LC	R	Insectivore
146	Plain Leaf Warbler	Phylloscopus neglectus	1	Passeriformes	Phylloscopidae	LC	NNB	Insectivore
147	Grey-hooded Warbler	Phylloscopus xanthoschistos	1	Passeriformes	Phylloscopidae	LC	R	Insectivore
148	Yellow-eyed Babbler	Chrysomma sinense	3	Passeriformes	Paradoxornithidae	LC	R	Insectivore
149	Common Babbler	Turdoides caudata	1	Passeriformes	Leiothrichidae	LC	R	Insectivore
150	Striated Babbler	Turdoides earlei	3	Passeriformes	Leiothrichidae	LC	R	Insectivore
151	Jungle Babbler	Turdoides striata	3	Passeriformes	Leiothrichidae	LC	R	Insectivore
152	Oriental White-eyed	Zosterops palpebrosus	1	Passeriformes	Zosteropidae	LC	R	Omnivore
153	Bar-tailed Treecreeper	Certhia himalayana	1	Passeriformes	Certhiidae	LC	NNB	Omnivore
154	Eurasian treecreeper	Certhia familiaris	1	Passeriformes	Certhiidae	LC	P	Insectivore
155	Bank Myna	Acridotheres ginginianus	15	Passeriformes	Sturnidae	LC	R	Omnivore
156	Common Myna	Acridotheres tristis	1	Passeriformes	Sturnidae	LC	R	Omnivore
157	Brahminy Starling	Sturnia pagodarum	2	Passeriformes	Sturnidae	LC	R	Omnivore
158	Common Starling	Sturnus vulgaris	5	Passeriformes	Sturnidae	LC	R	Omnivore
159	Bluethroat	Luscinia svecica	6	Passeriformes	Muscicapidae	LC	NNB	Omnivore
160	Himalayan Rubythroat	Luscinia pectoralis	1	Passeriformes	Muscicapidae	LC	NNB	Insectivore
161	Oriental Magpie Robin	Copsychus saularis	1	Passeriformes	Muscicapidae	LC	R	Insectivore
162	Indian Robin	Saxicoloides falicatus	1	Passeriformes	Muscicapidae	LC	R	Omnivore
163	Plumbeous Water Redstar	Rhyacornis fuliginosa	2	Passeriformes	Muscicapidae	LC	R	Insectivore
164	White-capped Redstar	Chaimarrornis leucocephalus	2	Passeriformes	Muscicapidae	LC	R	Insectivore
165	Black Redstar	Phoenicurus ochruros	1	Passeriformes	Muscicapidae	LC	NNB	Insectivore
166	Brown Rock-chat	Cercomela fusca	2	Passeriformes	Muscicapidae	LC	R	Carnivore
167	Pied Bushchat	Saxicola caprata	4	Passeriformes	Muscicapidae	LC	R	Insectivore
168	Grey Bushchat	Saxicola ferreus	6	Passeriformes	Muscicapidae	LC	NNB	Insectivore
169	Isabelline Wheatear	Oenanthe isabellina	1	Passeriformes	Muscicapidae	LC	NNB	Insectivore
170	Variable Wheater	Oenanthe picata	1	Passeriformes	Muscicapidae	LC	NNB	Insectivore
171	Black-throated Thrush	Turdus atrogularis	1	Passeriformes	Turdidae	LC	NNB	Insectivore
172	Red-breasted Flycatcher	Ficedula parva	4	Passeriformes	Muscicapidae	LC	NNB	Insectivore
173	Slaty-blue Flycatcher	Ficedula tricolor	1	Passeriformes	Muscicapidae	LC	NNB	Insectivore
174	Barn Swallow	Hirundo rustica	2	Passeriformes	Hirundinidae	LC	R	Granivore
175	Garganey	Anas querquedula	2	Passeriformes	Anatidae	LC	NNB	Insectivore
176	Purple Sunbird	Cinnyris asiaticus	5	Passeriformes	Nectariniidae	LC	R	Omnivore
177	House Sparrow	Passer domesticus	2	Passeriformes	Passeridae	LC	R	Omnivore
178	Sind Sparrow	Passer pyrrhonotus	2	Passeriformes	Passeridae	LC	R	Omnivore
					Table continues on next page................
Sr.	Common Name	Scientific Name	No.	Order	Family	Status	Distribution	Feeding type
179	Chestnut-shouldered Petronia	Gymnoris xanthocolis	1	Passeriformes	Passeridae	LC	R	Omnivore
180	Black-breasted Weaver	Ploceus benghalensis	5	Passeriformes	Ploceidae	LC	R	Omnivore
181	Streaked Weaver	Ploceus manyar	1	Passeriformes	Ploceidae	LC	R	Omnivore
182	Baya Weaver	Ploceus philippinus	69	Passeriformes	Ploceidae	LC	R	Omnivore
183	Indian Silverbill	Euodice malabarica	2	Passeriformes	Estrildidae	LC	R	Granivore
184	Scaly-breasted Munia	Lonchura punctulata	9	Passeriformes	Estrildidae	LC	R	Granivore
185	Yellow-breasted Greenfinch	Carduelis spinoides	4	Passeriformes	Fringillidae	LC	NNB	Granivore
186	Common Rosefinch	Carpodacus erythrinus	2	Passeriformes	Fringillidae	LC	NB	Granivore
187	Crested Bunting	Melophus lathami	3	Passeriformes	Emberizidae	LC	NB	Insectivore
188	Black-headed Bunting	Emberiza melanocephala	1	Passeriformes	Emberizidae	LC	NB	Insectivore
189	Red-headed Bunting	Emberiza bruniceps	7	Passeriformes	Emberizidae	LC	NB	Insectivore
190	Chestnut-tailed Starling	Sturnia malabarica	1	Passeriformes	Sturnidae	LC	R	Omnivore
191	Barred Buttonquail	Turnix suscitator	1	Charadriiformes	Turnicidae	LC	R	Omnivore
192	White Breasted wagtail	Motacilla alba Linnaeus	1	Passeriformes	Motacillidae	LC	NNB	Omnivore
193	White wagtail	Motacilla alba	1	Passeriformes	Motacillidae	LC	NNB	Carnivore
194	Tricoloured munia	Lonchura malacca	13	Passeriformes	Estrildidae	LC	R	Granivore
195	Black-headed ibis	Threskiornis melanocephalus	15	Pelecaniformes	Threskiornithidae	NT	R	Carnivore
196	Yellow-breasted Bunting	Emberiza aureola	3	Passeriformes	Emberizidae	CR	R	Omnivore
197	Eurasian Thick-knee	Burhinus oedicnemus	4	Charadriiformes	Burhinidae	LC	R	Carnivore
198	Paddyfield Pipit	Anthus rufulus	8	Passeriformes	Motacillidae	LC	R	Insectivore
199	River Lapwing	Sterna aurantia	6	Charadriiformes	Charadriidae	NT	R	Carnivore
200	Brown shrike	Lanius cristatus	1	Passeriformes	Laniidae	LC	R	Omnivore
201	Siberian Stonechat	Saxicola maurus	6	Passeriformes	Muscicapidae	LC	R	Insectivore
202	Purple Swamphen	Porphyrio porphyrio	22	Gruiformes	Rallidae	LC	R	Carnivore
203	Crested Bunting	Emberiza lathami	3	Passeriformes	Emberizidae	LC	R	Insectivore
204	Common iora	Aegithina tiphia	1	Passeriformes	Aegithinidae	LC	R	Insectivore
205	Bengal Bushlark	Mirafra Assamica	1	Passeriformes	Alaudidae	LC	R	Omnivore
206	Striated grassbird	Megalurus palustris	1	Passeriformes	Locustellidae	LC	R	Insectivore
207	Brown Headed Barbet	Psilopogon zeylanicus	7	Piciformes	Megalaimidae	LC	R	Omnivore
208	Indian eagle owl	Bubo bengalensis	2	Strigiformes	Strigidae	LC	R	Carnivore
209	Gadwall	Anas strepera	1	Anseriformes	Anatidae	LC	NNB	Omnivore
210	Common pochard	Aythya ferina	1	Anseriformes	Anatidae	VU	NNB	Piscivore
211	Northern pintail	Anas acuta	4	Anseriformes	Anatidae	LC	NNB	Omnivore

R, Resident; NB, Native breading; NNB, Non Native Breeding; P, Passage Migrant.

Table 2: Diversity indices of the avian species of the selected study area.

Indices	Values
Species	211
Population	1349
Dominance (D)	0.04022
Simpson (S)	0.9598
Shannon (H')	4.289
Evenness (E)	0.3455
Brillouin (B)	4.058
Menhinick (M)	5.745
Margalef (R)	29.14
Equitability (J)	0.8014
Fisher alpha (A)	70.17
Berger-Parker (P)	0.1475
Chao-1 (C)	270.8

The diversity indices determined in this research indicate a richly varied (Anderle et al., 2023; Aziz et al., 2024) and well-balanced bird community residing in the river ecosystem (Prasetyo and Wulandari, 2021; Bashir et al., 2025). The existence of multiple species with a fairly uniform distribution suggests a stable and thriving ecosystem that accommodates various ecological niches (Trappes, 2021). This variety implies that the environment provides plentiful food sources, appropriate nesting locations, and limited human interference, which are crucial for supporting both ordinary and uncommon bird species. The values of richness and evenness together emphasize the ecological intricacy and resilience of the bird community (Blowes et al., 2022; Laraib et al., 2024b), which might also act as a bioindicator for the river’s overall health (Babar and Kanwal, 2021; Bhowmick, 2021). This lively bird collection highlights the necessity of preserving riparian ecosystems, not just for the birds but also for the wider ecological roles they fulfill (Qiu et al., 2024).

A remarkable total of 211 bird species have been thoroughly documented in our study region. Within this bird study, we discovered that one precious species is on the verge of extinction, categorized as Critically Endangered, while two others are on the verge of extinction, classified as Endangered. Furthermore, our investigations have revealed 10 species that are Near Threatened, indicating the need for conservation measures. One species is Not Evaluated by the IUCN. Five bird species have been designated as Vulnerable, underlining the importance of vigilant care. Fortunately, a reassuring majority of remaining 192 species have been designated as Least Concern, but they, too, require our continual attention and care in order to thrive in our natural world (Figure 2).

During our study, we made several fascinating observations concerning the local avifauna. A considerable fraction (114 species) of the 211 species we found were devoted residents, deeply attached to their environment. We were also fortunate to observe six species of passage migrants, who stopped in the area on their travels. Furthermore, 72 species were non-native breeders, leaving their mark of feeding and breeding on this habitat, while 19 species proudly claimed the label of native breeders, adding to the local bird diversity (Figure 3).

Some species stood out prominently in terms of abundance, with the majestic Bar-headed Goose leading with an impressive total of N=199 sightings. The striking Black Stork ranked second with N=121 observations, followed by the attractive Ruddy Shelduck with N=72. The Baya Weaver delighted observers with N=69 sightings, while the beautiful Painted Stork was recorded N=37 times. Other notable species included the Great Egret (N=26), Whiskered Tern (N=25), Spotted Redshank (N=22), Purple Swamphen (N=22), and Lesser Whistling Duck (N=20) (Figure 4).

Our findings also unmask the avian feeding behavior. The majority of them, a total of 73 species, were insectivores, demonstrating their exceptional hunting abilities. The omnivores, with a diverse palate, came in second at 65. Meanwhile, 49 species were recognized as carnivores, enjoying the thrill of the hunt, and 10 species as granivores, preferring a diet rich in grains. We also found 8 piscivores, 4 herbivores, and 2 frugivores, all of which contributed distinct flavors to this eclectic avian feast. The least food habit was prepared from book known as Birds of Pakistan (Roberts, 1991, 1992). These findings shed light on the diverse lifestyles and food preferences of our feathery friends, adding complexity and mystery to our research (Figure 5).

Lesser white-fronted goose Anser erythropus

The Lesser White-fronted Goose (Anser erythropus) is a Vulnerable species, and the sighting of three birds in Head Marala, and Dinga is notable. These findings emphasize the necessity of protecting these places, especially during the breeding season, which normally begins in late May or early June. The existence of this species in non-native areas highlights the importance of conservation efforts to conserve their habitats and ensure the survival of fragile species such as the Lesser White-fronted Goose.

Tourism, angling, and deer breeding have created a lot of turbulence to nesting birds. Disturbance by hunting activity decreases breeding activity; illegal spring hunting and moulting bird round-ups, whereas, illegal shooting is going on in many countries. Sea are degraded because the environment is polluted, drained, covered by reeds, peat is harvested and reedbeds are destroyed (Madsen, 1995; Grishanov et al., 2006; Wang et al., 2012, 2013).

Woolly-necked stork Ciconia episcopus

From 2018 to 2023, the presence of Near Threatened and Resident bird species in the research region is remarkable. Several pairs of these birds have been seen along the riverbanks on a regular basis throughout the year. Although no breeding activity has been observed, sightings of juveniles during the post-monsoon season imply that reproduction may take place nearby. During this time, 14 individuals were observed, with an annual incidence ranging from 3 to 6 sightings per year, which were frequently accompanied by reports of a small number of nests.

Hunting was previously measured a primary threat to this species, though its current impact on breeding populations remains unclear. The species faces threats from urbanization, habitat loss, fragmentation, nest destruction, and pollution, particularly affecting lowland forests with nesting trees (Sundar, 2006; Hancock et al., 2010; BirdLife-International, 2020).

Egyptian vulture Neophron percnopterus

It is a notable occurrence to see the Endangered and resident Egyptian Vulture (Neophron percnopterus) in the Head Marala and Head Dinga districts. Although just two members of this species were noted in the research region, their existence is significant due to the Egyptian Vulture’s endangered status. These findings emphasize the significance of these specific locations for the conservation of this species. It emphasizes the importance of continued efforts to protection their habitats and the surrounding environment, as well as raising awareness about the Egyptian Vulture and other vulnerable species in the region’s conservation status. These discoveries highlight the critical necessity for conservation efforts to preserve the survival of vulnerable resident species like the Neophron percnopterus.

The Egyptian Vulture species faces multiple threats throughout its range, including disturbances, lead poisoning, collisions with wind turbines, reduced food availability, and habitat changes. The most significant threat is illegal poisoning, primarily targeting carnivores, with a notable impact on breeding grounds in Spain and the Balkans. In parts of Africa, declines in vulture populations are likely driven by the loss of wild ungulate populations, overgrazing by livestock, and improved sanitation at slaughterhouses. In the Cape Verde Islands, a population crash has been linked to increased mortality resulting from the historical use of long-lasting pesticides, ongoing poisoning of stray dogs, and decreased food availability due to urbanisation, rural abandonment, and improved sanitation. The non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) diclofenac, which is lethal to Gyps spp. when ingested from livestock carcasses, it is contributing to rapid declines in India. Additionally, mortality from power lines is particularly common in the Canary Islands and poses a risk in other regions of Spain and Africa. Competition with Griffon Vultures for suitable nesting sites may also hinder short-term breeding success (Zuberogoitia et al., 2008, 2014; Cortés-Avizanda et al., 2016; Donázar et al., 2016; Danturai et al., 2025).

Indian spotted eagle Aquila hastata

The presence of five Indian Spotted Eagles (Aquila hastata) in the areas of Head Marala, Head Qadirabad, and Head Trimmu is significant. These eagles are classified as vulnerable; therefore their existence in the area is critical for conservation efforts. The fact is that these eagles are resident of these areas emphasizes the necessity of these areas as habitats for their survival. These sightings highlight the importance of continuing to monitor and conserve these places in order to ensure the continued existence and well-being of fragile resident species such as the Indian Spotted Eagle. Conservation efforts and habitat preservation are critical to preserving their populations in these areas.

This species, though not well-studied, is clearly threatened by the conversion and disturbance of forested habitats within its range. Additionally, various other threats have negatively impacted many raptor populations in Asia. Further research is needed to understand the specific processes that may be affecting this species (BirdLife-International, 2016).

Steppe eagle Aquila nipalensis

It is an unusual event to see the Endangered and non-native nesting Steppe Eagle (Aquila nipalensis) in the Head Marala and Head Trimmu regions. Despite the fact that just two individuals of this species are recorded each year, these sightings have important conservation consequences. Steppe Eagles’ presence in this area emphasizes the relevance of these areas as prospective breeding grounds for this species.

The steppe eagle species was being exterminated from its breeding range and had also been extirpated from Romania, Moldova, and Ukraine as a result of agricultural conversion and direct persecution. Some negative consequences on the species are from the power lines and wind energy development. Various other causes include increased mortality rates, habitat destruction, undeterred breeding success, and illegal killing. Young eagles are frequently sold in western European countries. Other causes for its decline include illegal killing within Jordan, where the species has legal protection. Declining populations were also attributed to radioactive pollution and the veterinary drug diclofenac (Meyburg et al., 2013; Sharma et al., 2014; Eid and Handal, 2018).

Eastern imperial eagle Aquila heliaca

The vulnerable and non-native breeding Eastern Imperial Eagle (Aquila heliaca) in the Head Marala, Head Qadirabad, and Head Trimmu districts from 2018 to 2023 is noted. These sightings serve as a reminder of the importance of preserving various habitats, in order to maintain the Eastern Imperial Eagle and contribute to their conservation.

The Eastern Imperial Eagle, being a bird of prey, is threatened at its breeding grounds because of intensive forestry in mountain areas and the lack of native trees in lowland areas. Human disturbance and infrastructural development can limit its breeding area, with the Hungarian Plain suffering from more than 30% of its breeding potential lost. These threats include loss of breeding habitats, prey depletion, nest robbery, trade, shooting, poisoning, powerline electrocution, and vehicle collisions. Habitat changes from farming expansion also pose threats, with nest site competition from the Greater Spotted Eagle (Aquila clanga) in the Altai region, Russia (Horváth, 2009; Karyakin et al., 2009).

Yellow-breasted bunting Emberiza aureola

The sighting of the Critically Endangered and resident Yellow-breasted Bunting (Emberiza aureola) in the Head Marala and Head Trimmu areas is of great concern and significance. Despite the fact that only 2 to 3 individuals are recorded in the study area each year, the existence of this highly endangered species highlights the importance of these areas for its survival. The yellow-breasted bunting population has been rapidly declining, and their presence in this location serves as a stark reminder of the crucial need for conservation efforts. It is crucial to preserve and conserve the habitat at Head Marala and Head Trimmu to ensure the continuous presence and eventual recovery of this severely endangered species. These findings emphasize the necessity of worldwide efforts to address the threats to the Yellow-breasted Bunting and other endangered species, as well as the value of preserving different ecosystems and habitats.

The decline of a particular bird of prey species is largely due to excessive trapping at migration and wintering sites. This practice involves disturbing roosting flocks in reedbeds and cooking them, often marketed as “sparrows” or “rice-birds.” The trend has intensified with rising affluence, leading to thousands of these birds being captured annually for food festivals in southern China and Cambodia. In China and Nepal, the species is regarded as a delicacy, with male birds often stuffed and sold as mascots. Additionally, agricultural intensification, a shift to irrigated rice production, and habitat degradation on breeding grounds are significant factors contributing to their decline. Changes in agricultural practices since the 1980s, particularly increased pesticide use, have further exacerbated the situation (BirdLife-nternational, 2017).

Common pochard Aythya ferina

With one individual recorded in the study region, the sighting of the Vulnerable and non-native breeding Common Pochard (Aythya ferina) in Head Marala, is a remarkable occurrence. With a vast range during both the breeding and winter seasons and a substantial population, this species is in an unstable position.

The Pochard is declining, largely as a result of its eastern European breeding habitats being taken over and losing nesting sites as wetlands are destroyed, as well as water chemistry (especially from farm fertilizers running into waterways). Land use changes such as the decline of lowland marshes and fish ponds (they have either been neglected, or intensively managed) have resulted in scrub and inappropriate habitats. Introduced and native mammalian predation as well as that on nests have been responsible for decline, due to preying (American Mink, Raccoon Dog, Raccoon Procyon lotor, Red Fox Vulpes vulpes) (e.g. and Wild Boar Sus scrofa). Hunting, water-based recreation and the sound of machinery from urban development is also a threat. The European hunting bag of Pochard is still high; but illegal hunting and avian influenza remain threats to the species. Global warming and changes in sex ratios are emerging threats to pochard, which have a narrow ecological niche and are sensitive to water conditions. An increasingly male-dominated sex ratio could contribute to worldwide population reductions (Melville and Shortridge, 2006; Fox et al., 2016).

Overall threats

Bird populations along the Chenab River face numerous threats that endanger their survival, breeding, and migration. The main pressures include habitat loss due to agricultural development, deforestation, urban expansion, and wetland drainage, all of which reduce available nesting and feeding sites. Illegal hunting, poaching, and trapping, particularly during migration and wintering seasons, significantly contribute to the decline of vulnerable and endangered species. Pollution from agricultural chemicals, industrial waste, and noise from human activities further degrades habitat quality. Invasive predators such as raccoons, red foxes, and wild boars, along with exposure to veterinary drugs and pesticides like diclofenac, increase mortality rates among birds. Additionally, interactions with power lines, disturbances from tourism and recreational activities, and climate change-related alterations in rainfall and temperature patterns threaten the stability of bird populations. These combined stressors highlight the urgent need for comprehensive conservation strategies, habitat restoration, and community engagement to protect the diverse bird life of the Chenab River and its surrounding ecosystems.

Conclusions

This region emerges as a vibrant avian biodiversity, covering 211 bird species within its diverse and dynamic ecosystem. Through detailed field surveys and quantitative analysis using multiple diversity indices, our study provides meaningful insights into the richness, distribution, and ecological balance of bird communities inhabiting this region. Our research contributes valuable data to the growing body of knowledge on Pakistan’s avifauna and reinforces the urgent need for long-term conservation strategies. These findings underscore not only the ecological value of the Chenab River but also its role as a critical refuge for both resident and migratory bird species. The high diversity observed reflects the importance of maintaining this habitat amidst increasing environmental pressures. As we look to the future, protecting this area under sanctuary status would provide legal safeguards against habitat degradation, unregulated development, and human disturbance. It would also promote ecological research, environmental education, and sustainable ecotourism.

Declarations

Acknowledgement

Authors are highly thankful to photographers and local villagers who provide us data voluntarily.

Funding

The study received no external funding.

Generative AI and AI-assisted technology statement

The authors declare that they have used AI tools (https://chatgpt.com/) to correct English grammar only.

Statement of conflict of interest

The authors have declared no conflict of interest.

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