Research Article

Comparison of Organic and Chemical Soil Amendments in Semi-Arid Barley Cultivation: A Comprehensive Analysis of Soil Dynamics and Yield Responses

Abderrazak Mabrouki1*, Fatima Hiouani2, Abdelouahad Ouali1 and Djamila Madani3

1Promotion of Innovation in Agriculture in Arid Regions Laboratory, Department of Agronomic Sciences, Mohamed Khider University, BP 145 RP, 7000, Biskra, Algeria; 2Diversity of Ecosystems and Dynamics of Agricultural Production Systems in Arid Zones Laboratory, Department of Agronomic Sciences, Mohamed Khider University, BP 145 RP, 7000, Biskra, Algeria; 3Mohamed Boudiaf University of M’Sila, University Pole, Road Bourdj Bou Arreiridj, M’sila 28000 Algeria.

Received | October 22, 2025; Accepted | February 16, 2026; Published | March 26, 2026

*Correspondence | Abderrazak Mabrouki, Promotion of Innovation in Agriculture in Arid Regions Laboratory, Department of Agronomic Sciences, Mohamed Khider University, BP 145 RP, 7000, Biskra, Algeria; Email: [email protected]

Citation | Mabrouki, A., F. Hiouani, A. Ouali and D. Madani. 2026. Comparison of organic and chemical soil amendments in semi-arid barley cultivation: A comprehensive analysis of soil dynamics and yield responses. Pakistan Journal of Agricultural Research, 39(1): 167-178.

DOI | https://dx.doi.org/10.17582/journal.pjar/2026/39.1.167.178

Keywords | Sustainable agriculture, Organic amendment, Barley yield, Soil physical properties, Semi-arid environment, Chemical fertilizer

Copyright: 2026 by the authors. Licensee ResearchersLinks Ltd, England, UK.

This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

Introduction

Soil nutrient management is considered one of the cornerstones of sustainable agriculture, particularly in semi-arid climates where nutrient depletion and soil degradation threaten agricultural productivity (Kavvadias et al., 2024; Oueriemmi et al., 2025). Semi-arid climates face a complex set of problems resulting from limited natural water resources and climate changes. Water scarcity is one of the key agricultural constraints in semi-arid regions, which leads to soils (and vegetation) that typically exhibit unstable site characteristics, and have low levels of soil organic carbon, poor soil structure, reduced soil biodiversity, and a high rate of soil erosion via wind (Naorem et al., 2023). Soil nutrient depletion, with respect to soil degradation, is one of the main constraints to the sustainability of agriculture in semi-arid zones, as they contain calcareous soils, and have low organic matter resulting in the inability for agricultural production (El-Khalifa et al., 2022; Mahmoud et al., 2023). This suggests the need to develop areas where we have not significantly altered land productivity. In this respect, the large soil resources of arid regions provide a potential agricultural habitat and comprise around 16% of the planet’s land surface (Husein et al., 2019). Fertilizers, both chemical and organic, play a vital role in improving soil properties and enhancing crop productivity (Titirmare et al., 2023). Chemical fertilizers provide readily available nutrients, while organic fertilizers improve soil structure, water retention, and microbial activity (Emdad et al., 2023; Widjajanto et al., 2023). Traditional reliance on chemical fertilizers exacerbates salinity and structural decline (Makhlof et al., 2019). Organic amendments such as compost and manure have been shown to enhance soil physical properties and enhance crop performance (Hlisnikovský et al., 2024; Ojeniyi et al., 2007).

The integration of organic amendments (manure, compost) alongside or in place of chemical fertilizers is increasingly recognized for its role in improving soil structure, nutrient availability, and long-term productivity (Tefera et al., 2022; Wang et al., 2025).

Previous research has established that while chemical fertilizers can lead to improved crop production, they can have negative consequences, such as soil acidification, nutrient imbalances, and environmental pollution (Dikr, 2023; Titirmare et al., 2023). whereas organic fertilizers, such as animal manure and compost, enhance soil structure, improve water-holding capacity, and increase microbial activity (Verma et al., 2024; Zha et al., 2024). A study by Kumawat et al. (2016) showed that in a semi-arid location in Rajasthan, that vermicompost with the application of biofertilizer resulted in improved barley yields and improved soil biochemical properties. A further study conducted in Tunisia found that amendments of compost and biochar improved soil fertility and increased barley biomass under saline conditions (Oueriemmi et al., 2025).

In Algeria, barley is a dominant cereal crop, yet few studies have documented the impact of fertilization strategies on its production in local semi-arid conditions. This study investigates the effects of chemical fertilizer, sheep manure, and palm compost on soil physical properties at two depths (0–20 cm and 20–40 cm) and their subsequent impact on barley growth and yield. Our aim is to provide evidence-based recommendations for sustainable soil management that enhances productivity and contributes to regional food security.

Materials and Methods

Study area and data

A field experiment was conducted over a growing season (2023-2024) at El-Maadher, Maarif commune, in the province of M’Sila, Algeria (Figure 1). The precise GPS coordinates of the experimental site are 35°20’33”N 4°19’37”E. This region has a semi-arid steppe climate.

 

Climatic data were sourced from the NASA POWER database (NASA Power Project, 2024). The long-term climatological assessment, based on a ten-year period (2014-2024) indicates that the location receives approximately 296 mm of precipitation per year, with a very irregular pattern of distribution. There are peaks in precipitation in May (41,35 mm), September (34,34 mm), and March (31,52 mm), while summer is characterized by extreme dryness, with less than 3 mm recorded in July. The mean annual temperature is 19.74 ºC, with an average of 9,61 oC in January and over 30,88 ºC in July. Average wind speeds are 2,74 m/s, with winds highest in spring (approximately 3 m/s).

The Bagnouls and Gaussen ombrothermic diagram, based on climatic averages from 2014 to 2024 (Figure 2), clearly displays a long dry season, peaking in July and August, demonstrates the extent of water deficit in the region further confirming the arid to semi-arid nature of the study area, which is crucial for developing adaptive soil and water management practices to sustain barley yield.

 

Experimental design and agronomic management

The experiment was conducted using a randomized block design featuring three treatments and three replications (Figure 3). The treatments were: “T1” Chemical fertilizer PK 20-25 (100 kg P/ha, 125 kg K/ha) combined with Urea 46 (120 N kg/ha applied in three equal; 1/3 at sowing, 1/3 at tillering, 1/3 at bolting), The nitrogen was applied in three equal splits (40 kg N/ha each) at sowing, tillering, and bolting to minimize nitrogen losses through leaching and volatilization, a common practice in semi-arid environments (Sajjad et al., 2024; Dikr 2023). «T2» Sheep manure (45 t/ha), «T3» Palm compost (45 t/ha). The fertilizer dosage of 45 t/ha for organic amendments was selected based on local farmer practices and previous studies in the region (e.g., Ouali et al., 2025) to ensure a substantial input of organic matter for improving soil structure. Individual plots measured 3 × 2 m, with 1 m spacing between plots. Barley (Hordeum vulgare L., cultivar ‘Rihane 03’) was sown at a rate of 100 kg/ha. Irrigation was done using a sprinkler system to ensure even water distribution across all plots. Soil moisture was checked in the control plots at a depth of 15 cm. Irrigation started when the soil moisture dropped below 50% of field capacity. A uniform amount of 30 mm was applied to all plots roughly every 7 days, during the early morning to reduce evaporation. This helped keep soil moisture levels similar across treatments and prevented mixing up water stress with the effects of the amendments.

 

Table 1: Physico-chemical properties of the experimental soil before treatments.

Parameters	Value
Profile horizon	H1	H2
Depth cm	0-20	20-40
Clay (%)	25.08	22.53
Silt (%)	32.41	22.64
Sand (%)	42.50	54.84
Soil texture	Loam	Sandy Clay Loam
pH (1/5)	8.18	8.21
EC dS m-1 (1/5)	0.79	0.75
Organic matter (%)	2.18	0.92
Total organic carbon (%)	1.27	0.54
Total nitrogen ‰	1.41	0.39
CaCO₃ Total (%)	18.50	14.88
CaCO₃ Active (%)	11.40	8.42
CEC (meq /100 g)	12.49	10.39
P₂O₅ ppm	86.26	66.41

 

Soil and fertilizer characterization

The experimental soil is defined as loam in the surface horizon (H1: 0–20 cm) and sandy clay loam in the subsurface horizon (H2: 20–40 cm) (Table 1). The soil reaction is alkaline (pH ≈ 8,2) and has low electrical conductivity (0,75–0,79 dS m-1), as such is non-saline soil. Organic matter is low, particularly in the subsurface layer (2,18% in H1 and 0,92% in H2), together with low total nitrogen (0,14% in H1 and 0,04% in H2). Available phosphorus levels are moderate (86,26–66,41 ppm), whereas the soil contains high levels of total calcium carbonate (18,5–14,9%) and active CaCO₃ (11,4–8,4%), confirming the calcareous nature of the soil. The cation exchange capacity is moderate (10,39–12,49 meq/100 g), indicating a low capacity to retain nutrients. Overall, the soil is calcareous, alkaline and low in organic matter and nitrogen, indicating the importance of applying organic amendment and balanced fertilizer to improve soil productivity.

The chemical characteristics of the fertilizer are summarized in Table 2 (sheep manure and palm compost). The compost used in this experiment is produced using the method described by (Ouali et al., 2025). This method involved a rotary drum system and a maturation period of 20 days. The compost, which consisted of palm tree waste mixed with sheep manure and was established at 45 tons/ha. The analyses conducted on organic amendments indicated that sheep manure and palm compost are only slightly alkaline, with resulting pH values of 8 for sheep manure and 8,19 for palm compost and moderately saline, with an electrical conductivity (EC) of 6,8 to 7,6 dS m-1. The analysis indicated that the sheep manure had a moderate organic matter content (15.48%). The relatively low value can be attributed to the high mineral (ash) content of the samples, likely resulting from soil and bedding material mixed with the manure during collection. In addition, the manure was partially decomposed, which reduces organic carbon through mineralization. total carbon (9%), and total nitrogen (1,54%), though sheep manure is a notably good source of phosphorus (2183 ppm). The palm compost outperformed manure as an organic amendment in terms of organic matter (41,17%), carbon (23,93%), total nitrogen (2,91%), and phosphorus (2282 ppm) and is an overall better source of nutrients. While sheep manure is an excellent source of phosphorus, the palm compost presents a more sound and balanced organic amendment due to its organic matter and total nitrogen and would be best for fertility and structure improvements long-term.

 

Table 2: Characteristics of experimental poultry manure and palm compost.

Amendment	pH (1/10)	EC (dS m-1) (1/10)	OM %	Total C %	Total N ‰	P₂O₅ ppm
Sheep manure	8.00	6.83	15.48	9	1.54	2183.13
Palm compost	8.19	7.60	41.17	23.93	2.91	2282.37

 

Barley cultivation

Seeds of the barley (Hordeum vulgare L.) cultivar Rayhan 03 were sown at a rate of 100 kg/ha. The characteristics of this barley variety are summarized in Table 3.

Sampling and analyses

Soil samples were collected from two depths (H1: 0–20 cm and H2: 20–40 cm) for four barley growth stages: Emergence, tillering, stem stretching and maturity. Using standard methods (Klute, 1986; Blake and Hartge, 1986), we assessed the soil’s physical properties (particle and bulk density, porosity, and permeability) and chemical traits, Soil pH and electrical conductivity (EC) were measured in a 1:2,5 and 1:5 soil-to-distilled water suspension using a pH meter and a conductivity meter (Hanna Instruments), respectively. Agronomic measurements were conducted at the same growth stages. During these stages, plant height was recorded, while yield components assessed included the number of ears per plant, the number of seeds per ear, the thousand kernel weight (TKW), and both the grain and straw yields.

Statistical analysis

Data were subjected to a two-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) considering treatment and depth as factors, using R software (v 4.3.0). Treatment means were separated using Tukey’s Honest Significant Difference (HSD) test at a 5% probability level (*p* < 0,05).

 

Table 3: Pedigree, origin and agronomical parameters of the barley variety “Rihane03” used in the current study (Guetteche et al., 2023).

Pedigree	Origin	Year of release	Heading (days)	Height (cm)	Maturity (days)	Spikes/m2	Kernels/ Spike	Thousand kernel weight (g)	Grain yield (g/ha)
deriving from Atlas46/ Arivat //Athenais	ICARDA (Syria)	1995	98	96	118	198	72	46	38.2

 

Results

Soil characteristics

The use of organic amendments to the soil resulted in a major change in soil properties as compared to the application of chemical fertilizers (Figure 4, Table 4). Relative to the chemical fertilizer treatment, organic amendments positively influenced soil physical structure. At the maturity stage, the soil bulk density in the topsoil layer (0-20 cm) of the plots amended with sheep manure (1,12 g cm-3) and palm compost (1,13 g cm-3) was significantly lower when compared to the chemically fertilized plots (1,20 g cm-3), representing an 8% reduction. Along with this, an increase in total porosity was also noted with the organic treatments having a value of 47,3% which was significantly higher than 44,0% that was obtained in the chemical treatment, an 8% increase. These changes in the soil composition were reflected by a considerable increase in the saturated hydraulic permeability. The topsoil permeability rate for sheep manure was found to be 7,40 ml s-1 while for palm compost it was 7,06 ml s-1 as against 4,89 ml s-1 for the chemical fertilizer treatment- a 51% increase. The variations in the bulk density and porosity were noticed to be more significant in the surface layer (0-20 cm) from where the effects were also visible in the subsurface layer (20-40 cm) albeit at a lower degree.

The influence of different fertilization treatments on soil chemical parameters was very clear. At harvest, the pH of the topsoil was still alkaline for all treatments, However, the observed differences were not substantial, with a value of 8,23 for chemical fertilization compared to a range of 8,11 to 8,28 for organic amendments. For electrical conductivity (EC),The topsoil values were most elevated in the sheep manure treatment (1,01 dS m⁻¹), with chemical fertilizer (0,83 dS m⁻¹). Notably, the palm compost treatment resulted in a lower EC (0,59 dS m⁻¹) than the chemical fertilizer, suggesting a potential benefit for mitigating salinity. All the values were lower than the threshold limit of 2 dS m⁻¹, thus, an absence of saline stress condition was inferred.

 

Table 4: Impact of chemical and organic amendments on soil properties across depth.

Parameter	Depth (cm)	T1 (Chemical Fertilizer)	T2 (Sheep Manure)	T3 (Palm Compost)	Key Trend
Porosity (%)	0–20	43.0±1.2b	49.0±1.5a	44.0±2.1b	T2 > T3 ≈ T1 (topsoil)
	20–40	42.0±0.8b	44.0±1.1a	44.0±1.3a	T2 = T3 > T1 (subsoil)
Bulk density (g cm-3)	0–20	1.31±0.03a	1.22±0.05b	1.28±0.07ab	T2 < T1 (improved structure)
	20–40	1.30±0.02a	1.28±0.04a	1.26±0.05a	NSD (subsoil less responsive)
EC (dS m⁻¹)	0–20	0.60±0.05b	0.91±0.07a	0.64±0.12b	T2>T1=T3 (salinity concern)
	20–40	0.75±0.03b	0.87±0.06a	0.82±0.09ab	T2 ≈ T3 > T1 (subsoil)
Permeability (ml s-1)	0–20	4.30±0.8b	7.85±2.1a	6.78±1.5a	T2=T3>T1 (faster infiltration)
	20–40	5.85±1.0b	7.61±1.3a	4.66±0.9b	T2>T1≈T3(depth interaction)

 

(Mean ± Standard Deviation; Different letters indicate significant differences at p<0,05 within each depth)

 

Barley growth and yield

Plant growth, measured as final plant height, was greatest in plots receiving sheep manure (104,3 cm), compared to chemical fertilizer (87,0 cm) and palm compost (85,3 cm) (Figure 5).

 

Agronomic performance was strongly influenced by the fertilization strategy (Figure 6, Table 5). Yield component analysis revealed that the number of ears per m² was the primary factor driving yield differences. The sheep manure treatment produced significantly more ears per m² (2564) than the chemical (1493) and palm compost (1382) treatments. The thousand kernel weight (TKW) showed no significant differences among treatments, ranging from 45,9 to 48,3g.

Consequently, grain yield was highest in the sheep manure treatment, reaching 5,79 t ha⁻¹. This was significantly greater than the yield obtained with chemical fertilizer (3,43 t ha⁻¹) and palm compost (2,99 t ha⁻¹). A similar trend was observed for straw yield, with sheep manure producing 11,02 tha⁻¹, substantially outperforming the other treatments. In summary, the use of sheep manure significantly enhanced both soil physical properties and barley yield components compared to chemical fertilizer and palm compost.

 

Discussion

Soil physical responses

Our findings demonstrate that organic amendments, particularly sheep manure, significantly enhanced soil physical properties compared to chemical fertilization. Bulk density decreased markedly with sheep manure and palm compost, reaching 1,08 g cm-3 at 0–20 cm during stem elongation and maturity. Conversely values increased at 20–40 cm, indicating greater compaction and reduced organic matter with depth (Wang et al., 2019; Yaşar et al., 2016). Sheep manure and palm compost markedly reduced bulk density at 20 cm, enhancing porosity and hydraulic conductivity throughout barley growth.

 

Table 5: Barley yield components vs. critical soil properties by treatment.

Treatment	Grain yield (g/m²)	Straw yield (g/m²)	TKW (g)	Linked soil property (0–20 cm)	Linked Soil property (20–40 cm)
T1 (Chemical)	3426 ± 583	5246 ± 583	46.0 ± 1.7	Low porosity (43%) • High bulk density (1,31 g cm-3)	Moderate permeability (5.85 ml s-1)
T2 (Sheep Manure)	5788 ± 283	11018 ± 789	45.9 ± 1.4	High porosity (49%) • Low bulk density (1.22 g cm-3)	High permeability (7.61 ml s-1)
T3 (Palm Compost)	2994 ± 706	5889 ± 1048	48.3 ± 0.6	High organic C (23,93%) • Moderate porosity (44%)	High organic C (23.5%) • Low permeability (4,66 ml s-1)

 

This structural improvement facilitated deeper rooting and improved water fluxes corroborating evidence from arid soils where organic amendments improved soil physical structure and reduced compaction (Oueriemmi et al., 2021).

Porosity declined with depth, restricting water infiltration and root penetration, but increased markedly under organic amendments, sheep manure plots reaching porosity values up to 49% at (0–20 cm) at maturity, This was significantly greater than the porosity observed in chemically fertilized plots. Conversely, chemical fertilizers plots exhibited lower porosity, particularly at 40 cm, likely due to compaction and salt accumulation, processes known to reduce enzymatic activity and microbial diversity essential for soil structural stability (Kumar et al., 2020; Sharma et al., 2023).

Permeability showed a significant increase with organic amendments, with the highest value of 7,61 ml s-1 in sheep manure plots at maturity, compared to chemical fertilizer plots which peaked at 5,85 ml s-1. This result demonstrates that water infiltration dynamics were improved in organically amended soils.

Soil chemical responses

Soil pH exhibited a small alkaline trait at both depths, with a slight decrease observed at 20–40 cm, which is typical of semi-arid soils (Xiao et al., 2025; Zhang et al., 2022). Organic amendment generally produced slight increases in pH, especially at 20 cm depth and during the early growth period, which supported the previous conclusion that organic fertilizer mitigated acidity and supports soil chemical equilibrium (Wang et al., 2025). On the other hand, chemical fertilizer tended to maintain or lead to a slight decrease in pH, showing the acidifying effects from the inorganic nitrogen source.

Electrical conductivity (EC) was highest at the surface and fell with depth, indicating that salts accumulated in the upper layer because of evaporation. Chemical fertilizer resulted in a modest increase in EC, which reflects a higher concentration of ionic solutes. By contrast, organic manure reduced EC, thereby mitigating salinity accumulation. These results corroborate findings in maize systems where organic substitution decrease soil salinity and enhanced soil health (Xing et al., 2024).

Depth-dependent effects revealed more pronounced improvement in physical properties within the upper 20 cm under organic amendments, including increased in porosity and reduced bulk density. At a depth of 40 cm, the impacts of amendments were reduced but still higher than amendments with chemical fertilizer. This reinforces the notion that organic amendments are mostly engaging the topsoil through direct incorporation of organic matter and stimulating microbial activity, whereas changes in the subsurface layers would presumably occur much slower.

The results of these studies support previous research that organic amendments improve soil health through improving soil structure, enhancing microbial activity, and improving nutrient availability (Kumawat et al., 2016). In comparison, while chemical fertilizers provide rapid nutrient supply, they often contribute to soil acidification and lower long-term fertility (Khan et al., 2024). Similar patterns have reported in Iranian barley systems, where soil properties such as EC, pH, and water-holding capacity significantly influenced biomass and grain yield (Ayoubi et al., 2009). Organic fertilizers also increase soil organic carbon, microbial biomass and enzyme activities, especially within the upper 20 cm, and furthermore in deeper soil (20–40 cm) after repeated applications (Herencia and Maqueda 2016; Wang et al., 2025). Over the long-term organic inputs will maintain fertility and soil properties, while chemical fertilizers alone may lead to continuous deterioration of soil quality (Wang et al., 2025).

Agronomic and yield effects

Regarding barley yield characteristics, the plant height in the sheep manure plots reached a maximum of 105 cm, compared to approximately 90 cm with chemical fertilizer, demonstrating improved vegetative growth. This verifies with earlier observations of significant improvements in plant height with increasing levels of fertilization (Ramadhan, 2013; Rashid and Khan, 2008).

The highest number of ears per plot was obtained in the sheep manure and chemical treatments, which was then followed by the palm compost treatment. This improvement was due to an improved availability of nutrients supplied in the fertilizers to the plants, promoting expanded flag leaf levels that enhanced photosynthesis and tillering to sustain growing conditions. The results were consistent with the results reported by Zarina and Konosonoka (2019).

With respect to the count of seeds per Ear, the chemical fertilizer plots were observed to have marginally increased numbers as a result of application, however, these changes were not significant in most cases. Notably, the treatment (T1) yielded highest number of seeds per ear. This trend is consistent with previous findings (Ryan et al., 2009), indicating the yield gains from fertilization are driven by both increased ear density and a higher number of seeds per ear. Similarly, Sher et al. (2003), reported significant yield improvements with chemical fertilizer application compared to unfertilized controls.

Thousand Kernel Weight (TKW) increased under organic amendments, indicating improved grain filling. This observation aligns with Megh and Saniay (2004), who reported that nitrogen deficiency in cereals limits carbohydrates translocation to the grains, resulting in smaller grain size and reduced weight. Conversely, adequate nitrogen availability enhance grain filling, thereby increasing TKW.

Organic treatments particularly palm compost, produced grain yields comparable to or exceeded those achieved with chemical fertilizer consistent with finding reported in similar agro-climates conditions (Kumawat et al., 2016; Tefera et al., 2022).

Straw yield was higher under organic treatment, particulary with sheep manure and palm compost, compared to chemical fertilizer (Oueriemmi et al., 2025). Both chemical and organic amendments enhance vegetative growth by stimulating green foliage development. The direct absorption of potassium through increases leaf K concentration, improving photosynthetic efficiency through enhanced CO2 uptake and metabolism, and facilitating assimilate translocation throughout the plant. As a result, this process contributes to weight gain in the plant (Calinski et al., 1981; Steer and Hocking, 1984).

Similary, Hussein (2022) reported that higher organic fertilizer rates increase tillering due to greater nutrient availability, particularly nitrogen, during critical growth stages, thereby supporting greater biomass accumulation.

In terme of yield Response, evidence from Rajasthan and Ethiopia demonstrates that organic amendments, such as vermicompost, farmyard manure, can enhance barley grain yield by 20–30% compared to untreated controls. when applied alone or in conjunction with biofertilizers or at optimal rates (Kumawat et al., 2016; Mestawut et al., 2020; Tefera et al., 2022). The increased grain and straw yields with sheep manure applications in this study are in line with (Guetteche et al., 2023), and emphasizes the importance of organic amendments in sustaining productivity in similar agro-climatic zones. In Ethiopia, it has been shown that nitrogen and phosphorus fertilization significantly improved grain and biomass yields in barley (Tigre, 2014).

Implications for sustainable management

The results of this work are encouraging and support the core sustainable soil management approach based on the application of locally available organic materials, in particular sheep manure, in semi-arid areas such as those of Algeria. Chemical fertilizers deliver nutrients that are readily available, but because they have a very low influence on the soil’s physical and biological properties and are known to contribute to increasing soil salinity, they have certain limitations in terms of sustaining soil health. In contrast, sheep manure had a more pronounced effect on the physical quality of the soil, an aspect that is regarded as a decisive factor for water retention in areas susceptible to drought, and at the same time it supplied nutrients, which enabled the obtaining of the best results. Furthermore, it reinforcing food security by providing actionable recommendations for farmers in arid and semi-arid regions to ensure stable barley production under resource-limited conditions. For policymakers, it underscores the value of integrating livestock and crop production systems within a circular economy framework. Subsequent studies should focus on optimizing application rates, improving local composting techniques, and monitoring the long-term effects of these amendments on soil carbon sequestration and ecosystem health.

Conclusions

This study demonstrates that locally sourced organic amendments, particularly sheep manure, are a superior alternative to chemical fertilizers for enhancing soil health and barley productivity in semi-arid Mediterranean environments. Sheep manure significantly improved key soil physical properties, which included lowering soil bulk density by 8% and increasing permeability by 51% compared to using chemical fertilizer. These changes in soil directly impacted positively in terms of agronomical performance, where sheep manure produced the maximum yields in terms of grain and straw weights at 5,79 tons per hectare and 11,02 tons per hectare, respectively.

Besides other contributions, this work is also a marked point in the evaluation of palm compost as a potential valuable amendment for areas with date palm residues. Despite the fact that palm compost had a positive effect on soil properties, its impact on agricultural practices was significantly lower than that of sheep manure, which points to the need for adjusting the processes of composting and getting deeper insights into nutrient release profiles of different organic inputs for future agronomic use.

In summary, the adoption of organic amendments, such as sheep manure, represents a sustainable and effective means of restoring ground quality, increasing barley yield, and strengthening resilience against climate variability in semi-arid environments. Agricultural policy and farming communities are strongly encouraged to promote these practices as the basis for sustainable land management and rural development. By integrating scientific evidence, local resources, and farmers’ experience, it is possible to promote food safety and environmental administration for the future of agriculture in regions with water limits.

Future studies should focus on improving composting techniques for palm waste and conducting long-term monitoring of soil health and yield stability. Investigating integrated nutrient management strategies that combine organic and mineral fertilizers could further optimize resource-use efficiency.

Acknowledgement

The authors would like to express their sincere gratitude to all individuals who contributed, directly or indirectly, to the completion of this work. Their support and assistance throughout the research process are deeply appreciated.

Novelty Statement

This study provides an integrated field evaluation of sheep manure, palm compost, and chemical fertilization, assessing their effects on soil hydro-physical properties and barley performance across multiple growth stages and soil depths under semi-arid Mediterranean conditions. The findings demonstrate that locally available sheep manure simultaneously restores soil physical quality and maximizes crop yield, offering a practical and sustainable alternative to synthetic fertilizers in degradation-prone dryland agroecosystems.

Author’s Contribution

Abderrazak Mabrouki: Conceived the study, designed and conducted the field experiment, collected and analyzed the data, and wrote the original manuscript.

Fatima Hiouani: Contributed to the conceptualization of the research idea, assisted in data interpretation, and reviewed and edited the manuscript.

Abdelouahad Ouali: Participated in field experiment management and provided critical feedback throughout the study.

Djamila Madani: Contributed to the statistical analysis of the data and manuscript correction.

Generative AI and AI-assisted technology statement

The authors declare that no generative AI and AI-assisted technology was used in the creation of this manuscript.

Conflict of interest

The authors have declared no conflict of interest.

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