Comparative Efficacy of Different Insecticides against Bemisia tabaci (Gennadius) under Controlled Conditions

Muddassir Ashiq, Shoaib Freed*, Javeria Abbas and Mudasar Raza

Department of Entomology, Faculty of Agricultural Sciences and Technology, Bahauddin Zakariya University, Multan, Pakistan

ABSTRACT

Bemisia tabaci is the critical polyphagous pest of different crops and insecticides belonging to different groups are being used for its control. The present investigation was performed to estimate the efficacy of conventional and new synthetic insecticides along with their biochemical analysis on B. tabaci. The data affirmed that utmost nymphal mortality 89.80% was detected in the buprofezin and 81.46% mortality in thiamethoxam at highest concentration. Results of adult bioassay revealed maximum mortality i.e., 84.33% in the bifenthrin followed by 66.66%, 42.34%, 36.84% mortality in chlorfenapyr, profenofos and imidacloprid, respectively. Detoxification enzyme analysis showed maximum activities of acetylcholinesterase, esterases, glutathione S-transferase, acid and alkaline phosphatases in the highest concentration of insecticides and minimum activities were observed in the control groups. Findings of the current research showed that the rotational use of insecticides may be highly effective for B. tabaci and can also minimize risk of resistance development.

Article Information

Received 11 October 2024

Revised 10 October 2025

Accepted 28 October 2025

Available online 11 March 2026

(early access)

Published 18 June 2026

Authors’ Contribution

MA and SF conceived and designed the research. MA and MR conducted experiments and collected data. SF supervised the experiments. MA, JA, MR and SF analyzed the data and wrote the manuscript. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Key words

White fly, Insecticides, Biochemical characterization, Resistance, IGR, Enzymes

DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.17582/journal.pjz/20241011064547

* Corresponding author: [email protected]

0030-9923/2026/0004-1863 $ 9.00/0

Copyright 2026 by the authors. Licensee Zoological Society of Pakistan.

This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).


INTRODUCTION

Bemisia tabaci (Gennadius) is most significant pest of ornamentals and vegetables (Perring et al., 2018). Its host range varies from ornamentals to solanaceous crops including tobacco, brinjal, tomato, cotton, potato and chilies (Kanakala and Ghanim, 2019; Smith and Krey, 2019; Kunjwal and Srivastava, 2018). It damages the plants by sucking cell sap from leaves (Wang et al., 2017; Eslamizadeh et al., 2015; Mascarin et al., 2013) and also excretes honeydew which causes the formation of mold and it inhibits the photosynthesis (Gao et al., 2017; Xie et al., 2014). In addition, nymphs inject enzymes that alter the plant physiology resulting in an unequal ripening of fruits and underdeveloped color (Legg et al., 2014). It also acts as vector of pathogens including torradoviruses, begomoviruses, ipomoviruses, carlaviruses and criniviruses (Cuthbertson, 2013; Stansly and Natwick, 2010; Kumarasinghe et al., 2009). Out of these begomoviruses are well known for causing the losses in many crops (Gangwar and Charu, 2018).

In Pakistan, B. tabaci has developed resistance against carbamates, pyrethroids and organophosphates due to the excessive usage (Ahmad et al., 2002, 2010; Ali, 2011). Neonicotinoids have novel mode as related to the conventional insecticides as they specifically focus on the central nervous system of insects (Stenersen, 2004). In the present cropping systems, neonicotinoids are being used against sucking (plant and leaf hoppers, aphid and whiteflies) and certain chewing (coleopterans and lepidopterans) pests (Jeschke et al., 2011).

Alternatively, insect growth regulators (IGR’s) have shown the potential for controlling B. tabaci under green house and field crops (Ishaaya et al., 1988). IGR’s act by interrupting the metamorphosis and development of insects and also disrupt their expression of activity, that’s why these insecticides act in slow pace than other insecticides (Sial and Brunner, 2010; Horowitz et al., 2005). Synthetic pyrethroids act on the voltage-gated calcium, sodium and chloride ducts and GABA-gated chloride channels (Forshaw and Ray, 1990; Song and Narahashi, 1996). Bifenthrin being a 3rd generation pyrethroid is effective for managing the pests of cotton (Balakrishnan et al., 2009), fruits (Reddy and Rao, 2002), rice (Veeravel and Ravivarman, 2010) and vegetables (Gupta et al., 2009).

One of the causes of insecticide resistance is the physiological changes leading to an increased level of enzymes involved in the detoxification process (Heckel, 2012; Vontas et al., 2002). Furthermore, the detoxification process can lead to cross-resistance to certain other insecticides (Zhang et al., 2016; Mitchell et al., 2012; Qian et al., 2008). Considering the importance of B. tabaci as a potential economic pest, this study was planned to evaluate the effectiveness of insecticides on B. tabaci and the involvement of detoxification enzymes in the resistance development.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Bemisia tabaci

Bemisia tabaci was collected with the help of manual aspirator from cotton fields of Bahauddin Zakariya University. Adults were reared on cotton plants in glasshouse without any exposure of insecticides under optimum conditions (T= 25 ± 2°C and RH = 65 ± 5%) until 5 generations. Plants were monitored for egg laying after 48-72 h, and plants containing eggs were transferred into rearing cages to attain uniform generation.

Insecticides

Commercial formulations of imidacloprid 20 SL Confidor®, Syngenta, chlorfenapyr 360 SC Squadron® FMC, profenofos50 EC Curacron®, Syngenta and bifenthrin 10EC Talstar®, FMC were used against adults, while thiamethoxam 25 WG Actara®, Syngenta, buprofezin 25 WP Buprofezin®, Syngenta were used against nymphs. All concentrations were made by serial dilution method.

Insecticides bioassay for adults

For bioassay, leaf dip method as reported by Luo et al. (2010) was used with slight variations to assess the effect of lethal and sublethal concentration (LC50 and LC30). Briefly 2 mL out of 1.5% agar solution was taken into petri dishes of 1 ×3.5 cm and placed at a cool place. Petri dishes were modified by making a round hole in the cover lid with a cut of 2.8 cm in diameter for infusion of air into the petri dishes, mesh size 100 was used to make insect proof cover for the opening. To avoid large leaf veins, hole of 3.5 cm circumference was made. Leaves discs were carefully submerged in the dilutions while ddH2O water was used to treat control insects. Leaves were left for drying with their abaxial sides facing up and then put in petri dishes to get attached with agar having no space between them.

Bemisia tabaci adults were placed in the petri dishes by making the adults immobilized by placing them at -20 °C for 10 s. 15 individuals per petri dishes were used for experiment. Bioassay was performed under completely randomized design (CRD) design having 5 treatments and 3 replications. Data was recorded by counting the dead insects and those not moving normally were also counted as dead.

Nymphal bioassay

Methodology of Zheng et al. (2017) was followed for nymphal bioassay. Cotton plants at two true leaves stage were grown in the glasshouse and then transferred into cages. Fifty B. tabaci, adults were shifted in the cages for egg-laying. After 24 h, egg-laying was observed under microscope and adults were removed. Number of nymphs were counted using magnifying lens when they reached up to 2nd nymphal instar. Infested leaves were dipped into the dilutions of the insecticides for 20 s and mortality was assessed after seven days when nymphs developed into pupae. Those nymphs were considered as dead that could not transform into pupae. Experiment contained five treatments including one control and three replicates.

Determination enzymatic activity

Samples for biochemical analysis of B. tabaci were collected by following Malik et al. (2019). Five treated adults were taken into Eppendorf tubes (1.5 mL) and 100 µL of 0.15 M NaCl was added for crushing and volume was made 500µL. Samples were spun for 10 min at 10,000 rpm and supernatant was used for determination of enzymatic activity glutathione (GST), esterases (EST), acetylcholinesterase (AChE), alkaline phosphatases (ALP) and acid phosphatase (ACP).

Habig et al. (1974) was followed for estimation of GST activity. Methodology of Damayanthi and Karunaratne (2005) was used for determining the EST activity. For determining the AChE activity, methodology of Ellman et al. (1961) was followed. The procedure of Otto et al. (1946) was followed to check the activities of ALP and ACP. Tris-HCl buffer 0.05M was used with 0.23mM disodium 4-nitrophenyl phosphate (PNPP), while for ACP 0.05M citrate buffer was used. Samples were incubated for 2 h at room temperature. After incubation, 425µL 0.05M NaOH was mixed in the samples for coloration. Activities were observed at λ 410 nm.

Data analysis

The software POLO-PC (LeOra, 2003) was used for establishing both lethal (LC50) and sub-lethal concentrations (LC30). Mortality data was then analyzed using the software Statistix 8.1, and the Tukey’s test was used to differentiate between the means of different treatment. Graphs describing enzymatic activities were created using Microsoft Excel 2010 and Prism Graph Pad (version 9.0.0). Mean values with standard errors were determined using the bootstrap methods (Meyer et al., 1986). All experiment were repeated twice.

RESULTS

Mortality of B. tabaci after exposure to insecticides

Toxicity of insecticides was evaluated using leaf dip bioassay. Mortality data for insecticides efficacy on adults of B. tabaci was observed 2nd day post treatment which depicted highest mortality in bifenthrin i.e., 84.33 % followed by chlorfenapyr, profenofos and imidacloprid 66.66, 42.34 and 36.84%, respectively compared to the untreated groups (Table I). The data depicted varying LC50, LC30 and slopes values for different insecticides used against adult B. tabaci (Table II).

Mortality data for insecticides efficacy on B. tabaci nymphs was observed 7th day post treatment until nymphs changed to pupae. Results showed that highest mortality of nymphs was caused by buprofezin (89.80 %). Thiamethoxam also demonstrated notable mortality of 81.46% as compared to the untreated groups (Table 1). Similarly, buprofezin and thiamethoxam treatments on B. tabaci nymphs showed LC50 and slope 1.039, LC50, LC30 and slope 0.796 values, respectively (Table II).

Enzymatic activity of B. tabaci after insecticides exposure

In bifenthrin treatment, highest AChE activity 23.53 μmol/min mg protein was observed in the maximum concentration treatment followed by GST, EST, ALP activities 18.53,15.53, 7.17 μmol/min mg protein, while least activity of ACP i.e., 5.39 was recorded in the similar treatment (Fig. 1). In chlorfenapyr treatment highest activity of GST i.e., 29.20 was found in the maximum concentration followed by EST 28.53, AChE 22.54, ALP 6.05 μmol/min mg protein and minimum activity of ACP 5.19 was found in highest concentration (Fig. 2).

 

Table I. Percent mortality of different stages of B. tabaci after exposure to insecticides.

Concentration (ppm)

Adult

Concen-tration (ppm)

Nymph

Bifenthrin (n=270)

Chlo-rfenapyr (n=270)

Profenofos (n=270)

Imida-cloprid (n=270)

Buprofezin

(n=270)

Thiamethoxam (n=270)

100

84.33 ± 0.64a

66.66 ± 1.70a

42.34 ± 1.11a

36.84 ± 0.69a

20

89.80 ± 1.82a

81.46 ± 1.11a

75

46.66 ± 0.74ab

56.66 ± 0.74ab

35.66 ± 1.29ab

27.33 ± 0.74a

10

74.87 ± 1.02a

70.00 ± 1.29ab

50

33.33 ± 0.74b

40.00 ± 1.82bc

25.32 ± 1.29bc

20.00 ± 1.58ab

5

69.33 ± 0.74ab

60.00 ± 1.29ab

25

20.00 ± 1.82c

30.00 ± 1.82c

20.00 ± 1.58ca

16.66 ± 1.05b

1

53.33 ± 0.91bc

50.00 ± 1.58bc

12.50

13.33 ± 1.29cd

23.33 ± 1.29cd

13.33 ± 1.05a

10.00 ± 1.58b

0.5

36.66 ± 1.05cd

33.33 ± 1.05c

Control

6.66 ± 1.82d

3.33 ± 1.82d

6.66 ± 1.82e

3.33 ± 1.82c

Control

7.66 ± 1.82d

6.66 ± 0.82d

 

Table II. LC50 and LC30 of different insecticides treated against laboratory population of B. tabaci.

Stage

Insecticides

LC50

LC30

Slope ± SE

χ2

df

P

Adult

Profenofos

0.742-3.186

0.039-1.004

0.681 ± 0.179

2.344

3

0.781

Bifenthrin

1.636-9.009

0.843-1.554

0.546 ± 0.175

0.171

3

0.057

Imidacloprid

1.559-3.893

0.302-1.258

0.973 ± 0.186

0.655

3

0.218

Chlorfenapyr

3.113-14.159

3.622-4.202

0.636 ± 0.178

1.418

3

0.473

Nymph

Buprofezin

1.076-2.688

0.234-1.214

1.039 ± 0.190

5.385

3

0.185

Thiamethoxam

1.047-3.387

0.112-1.203

0.796 ± 0.181

0.253

3

0.084

 

* S.E, Standard Error; χ2, Chi-square value; df, Degree of freedom; P, p-value.

 

 

 

In the imidacloprid treatment maximum activity of EST 31.20 was recorded in highest concentration treatment followed by 25.53 in GST, 15.53 in AChE, 4.41 in ACP while minimum activity of ALP 3.97 was observed in highest concentration treatment (Fig. 3). In the profenofos treatment, maximum activity of GST 29.25 was found in the highest concentration treatment followed by 26.75, 20.15, 5.17 μmol/min mg protein of EST, AChE, ALP while minimum activity was observed in the ACP (Fig. 4).

 

Enzymatic activity in nymphs of B. tabaci

In buprofezin treatment maximum activity of GST i.e., 25.53 μmol/min mg protein followed by AChE 23.20, EST 18.87, ALP 9.72 μmol/min mg protein, and minimum level of ACP 9.05 was recorded in highest concentration treatment (Fig. 5). Similarly, in thiamethoxam treatment, maximum activity of AChE i.e., 25.47 was found in highest concentration treatment followed by 20.20, 18.20, 5.73 in GST, EST and ACP while minimum activity of ALP 4.17 was at similar concentration, respectively (Fig. 6).

 

 

 

DISCUSSION

Bemisia tabaci is a versatile pest found in plains of Pakistan all over the year. During summer, cotton, okra, brinjal, and tomatoes flourish in a hotter and drier climate. Small farmers commonly sow these crops adjacently, and whiteflies continue to migrate between them. The occurrence of B. tabaci resistance relies on the regularity of pesticide uses instead of whitefly populations on specific crops. Cotton, brinjal and okra are treated with insecticide four times, while tomato is sprayed only two times. In Pakistan, it is common to control the infestation of sucking pests on vegetables and ornamental plants by using new chemicals (Basit et al., 2013). In the 1990s, Pakistan permitted the use of novel insecticides in response to a notable rise in resistance to insecticides in the country (Ahmad et al., 2002, 2010). For B. tabaci, pesticides with novel modes of action proved to be highly effective and were extensively used. In the year 2000, the vulnerability of B. tabaci to common insecticides was regained due to increased use of novel chemical insecticides and the decreased reliance on conventional insecticides (Ahmad and Khan, 2017). This study presents the insecticidal effectiveness of seven different insecticides classified as organophosphates, pyrethroids, neonicotinoids, and IGRs. Maximum mortality was observed by buprofezin 89.80%, which is in agreement with Gogi et al. (2021) who deliberated the efficacy of insecticides against whitefly and Encarsia formosa and stated buprofezin to cause 84.4% nymphal mortality on Bt-cotton. Neonicotinoids are the major insecticides used for the management of whiteflies (Yang et al., 2016). Findings of this study indicated that thiamethoxam showed 81.46% mortality of nymphs which is in line with Chen et al. (2018) who reported toxicity of thiamethoxm to B. tabaci nymphs.

Imidacloprid provides effective control of adults of B. tabaci and in the current research 84.33% mortality was recorded which is partially consistent with the outcomes of Babar et al. (2013) and Ghosh (2020) who reported 76.0 and 80.1% mortalities of adult B. tabaci. Whiteflies in cotton have been difficult to eradicate using standard pesticides instead of pyrethroids (Dennehy and Williams III, 1997). The tolerance of whitefly may be due to the decreased insecticide permeation, the high insecticide dissolution, and lack of sensitivity of the insecticides’ target location (Guedes, 1999; Yu, 1988). Low mortalities 36.84 and 42.34%, were caused by bifenthrin and profenofos treatment which agree with the findings of Bacci et al. (2007) and Kady and Devine (2003) who reported inefficiency of these insecticides for controlling B. tabaci.

AChE, ALP, ACP, EST, and GST enzymes are responsible for neutralizing toxic metabolites in the insect body. These enzymes are essential for maintaining the normal functioning of insect physiology (Chen et al., 2017; Zibaee et al., 2009). The metabolism of insects depends on enzymes that neutralize the impact of insecticides. The resistance in insect pests to these pesticides depends on the amplified activities of such enzymes (Gong et al., 2021).

The study tested the impact of pesticide application on the activities of detoxification enzymes in B. tabaci. Increased GST and AChE activities were noted following pesticide treatment on B. tabaci, which aligns with the outcomes of Yang et al. (2016) and Bilal et al. (2017, 2018a, b) who detected a similar rise in AChE activity following exposure to pesticides. Similarly, elevated levels of EST, ALP, and ACP were detected in insects treated with insecticides, which correlates with Wang et al. (2002) and Jia et al. (2016) who described amplified enzymatic activities in Aphis gossypii and Locusta migratoria.

CONCLUSION

This study exposes the difference in vulnerability of B. tabaci to different insecticides under laboratory conditions and its biochemical characterization. Results propose that appropriate use of insecticides with rotation can help to reduce B. tabaci population and reduce the risk of insecticides resistance.

Declarations

Funding

The study received no external funding.

Generative AI and AI-assisted technology statement

The authors declare that no generative AI and AI assisted technology was used in the creation of this manuscript.

Statement of conflict of interest

The authors have declared no conflict of interest.

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