Research Article

Application of Insect-Derived Chitosan as a Biostimulant to Improve Growth and Resistance in Iraqi Wheat Varieties

Ibrahim Ayad Jihad١ Mustafa Mudhafar2 Noor F. Abdul Hassan ٣ Mariam Jamal Abd Alkareem٤ Maryam Mansoor Mathkoor٥ and Qais R. Lahhob6

1Department of chemistry and biochemistry, Al-Zahraa college of medicine, University of Basrah, Iraq; ٢Centre for Research on Environment and Renewable Energy, University of Kerbala, Karbala 56001, Iraq; ٣Control and Computer Engineering Department, College of Engineering, Almaaqal University, Basrah, Iraq; ٤Department of pharmaceutics, College of pharmacy, Albayan University, Baghdad, Iraq; ٥Department of therapeutic nutrition technologies, Al Taff university college, 56001, Kerbala, Iraq;6Collage of Pharmacy, National University of Science and Technology, Dhi Qar, 64001, Iraq.

Abstract | Wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) is an important staple and its production suffer sfrom impacts such as salinity, drought, and diseases including Fusarium head blight. Here, we present the results of a field study to assess insect-derived chitosan as a biostimulant for the purpose of enhancing growth and yield and improving disease resistance in Iraqi wheat. We conducted the study in Baghdad during the period 2024–2025 and included treatments of 0%, 0.5%, 1%, and 2% chitosan. Treatments were applied through seed coating and foliar sprays. The 1% chitosan treatment significantly improved plant height, biomass, yield, and chlorophyll content; and reduced disease severity (p < 0.05). The ratio of profit to cost was 3.5 for 1% chitosan. The results demonstrate that 1% chitosan shows great potential as an eco-friendly alternative to synthetic inputs for sustainable wheat production in Iraq. The study further indicates the potential of insect-derived chitosan to positively affect physiological resilience under arid conditions. The dual mode of action of chitosan as a biostimulant of plant growth and the elicitor of defence responses makes it an input for climate-smart agriculture. We recommend that targeted research be conducted to assess the efficacy of chitosan in large agricultural contexts, and that farmer training be incorporated to facilitate chitosan affiliate adoption in wheat producing regions prone to climate-related stressors.

Received | June 11, 2025; Accepted | September 30, 2025; Published | June 30, 2026

*Correspondence | Ibrahim Ayad jihad, Department of chemistry and biochemistry, Al-Zahraa college of medicine, University of Basrah, Iraq; Email: [email protected]

Citation | Jihad, I.A., M. Mudhafar, N.F.A. Hassan, M.J.A. Alkareem, M.M. Mathkoor and Q.R. Lahhob. 2026. Application of insect-derived chitosan as a biostimulant to improve growth and resistance in Iraqi wheat varieties. Pakistan Journal of Agricultural Research, 39(2): 159-166.

DOI | https://dx.doi.org/10.17582/journal.pjar/2026/39.2.159.166

Keywords | Chitosan, Wheat, Iraq, Biostimulant, Disease Resistance, Salinity tolerance, Sustainable agriculture

Copyright: 2026 by the authors. Licensee ResearchersLinks Ltd, England, UK.

This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).


Introduction

For food security and livelihood for millions of smallholder farmers, wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) holds an utmost place in both food security and economy of Iraq since it fulfills the food needs of Iraqi people in an over 50% manner (Gholizadeh et al., 2025). The danda of production in Iraq is subjected to multiple stressors: biotic (Fusarium Head Blight-Fusarium graminearum) and abiotic such as drought and salinity because of issues pertaining to water management and the environmental variables (e.g., arid climate). Approximately 30% of Iraq’s arable land (especially through the central region to southern sized areas like Baghdad and Basrah) is subjected to salinity stress, as evidenced by electrical conductivity (EC) values often exceeding 2.3 dS/m and is due to several factors such as high rates of evapotranspiration, poor drainage systems, and saline water from the Tigris and Euphrates. As the Tigris and Euphrates rivers have experienced diminished inflow and increased contamination due to upstream dam creation, water sources have become saline (Bolboli et al., 2025). Salinity stress produces several adverse effects, reaching constant osmotic stress, causing ion toxicity (in particular sodium accumulation) and the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) such as superoxide (O₂-) and hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂), which all serve to limit photosynthetic capacity, nutrient uptake and plant vigor, leading to yield reductions of 20-50% per year (Saberi Riseh et al., 2021).

The Iraqi conventional farm practices rely heavily on synthetic fertilizers and pesticides to combat such challenges; hence, such short-term expediency does not suffice in ensuring its long sustainability. Improper application of these chemicals has contributed adversely to the environment by way of soil acidification, water pollution, loss in biodiversity, evolution of pesticide-resistant pathogens, as well as pesticide poisoning and diseases due to chronic exposure to pesticides (Rehman et al., 2023). In response to these issues, a dramatic shift is currently underway worldwide in favor of sustainable agricultural inputs, with biostimulants gaining international fame as green alternatives to improve physiology, tolerance, and resistance of plants against biotic and abiotic stresses without any antagonism to the environment.

Chitosan, which is a deacetylated derivative of chitin, is a natural biopolymer that has been given a great deal of consideration in agriculture-related studies. Chitosan is generally extracted from the shell of crustaceans such as shrimps and crabs. Chitosan is said to have several properties that trigger plant defenses, help with nutrient uptake, photosynthesis, and strengthening of cell walls against pathogen attacks (Malerba and Cerana, 2020).The chitosan eliciting defense-related pathogenesis genes like PR-1, chitinase, and enhancing the antioxidant enzymes SOD and CAT against toxic ROS, with systemic acquired resistance being induced for enhanced resistance to pathogenic fungi and bacterial pathogens (Nikbakht et al., 2021). Being a landlocked country, it would not be practical for Iraq to base its chitosan use on the cells of a marine environment, with import challenges and environmental concerns of overfishing obstructing its use.

Another method that merits attention is the pest-produced chitosan extracted from the exoskeletons of agricultural pests such as crickets (Gryllus bimaculatus) or locusts (Schistocerca gregaria), both of which are rampant in Iraq. This illustrates the idea of the circular bioeconomy, because one can transform the biomass from pests into an invaluable agricultural input, hence diminishing waste and encouraging integrated pest management (Triunfo et al., 2022). The chitosan from insects retains the same level of bioactivity as the marine one but with the added advantages of local availability and a smaller carbon footprint. Though earlier works have shown its efficacy in root growth stimulation, water retention, and alleviation of abiotic stresses in different crops, its applications in wheat under Iraqi field conditions have never been given enough attention (Saenz-Mendoza et al., 2023).

This study seeks to investigate the increase in growth, yield, physiological resistance, and disease resistance, through analyzing study method of various doses of insect chitosan differentiated by insect chitosan treatment of 0%, 0.5%, 1%, and possibly 2% by either seed coating or foliar spray in Iraq wheat varieties. The objectives targeted are to quantify increases in agronomic traits like plant height, number of tillers, biomass, and grain yield; assess physiological characteristics such as chlorophyll content and antioxidant activity; evaluate resistance against Fusarium head blight; and analyze the cost-benefit of applying chitosan. The study carries the scope to provide the scientific basis for incorporating insect chitosan in wheat production systems in Iraq, serving sustainable agricultural systems and food security in the nation.

Materials and Methods

Study area and experimental design

The field experiment was executed on the Agricultural Research Station, in Baghdad, Iraq (33.3°N, 44.4°E), in the 2024–2025 wheat season (November 2024 to May 2025). This is confirmed site for broad comparison since it has a typical arid climate the average of about 150 mm of total precipitation, the average temperatures are from 5°C in the winter to 40°C in the summer, and average saline soils which represents their experienced challenges (Bolboli et al., 2025). At this location, the soil was deemed silty clay-based as it possessed 2.3 dS/m as a measure of electrical conductivity (EC) and 7.5 for pH (Table 1). Considering some degree on salinity and nutrient metrics, the growing season was initiated in March with a randomized complete block design (RCBD) have four treatments: a control (0% chitosan), 0.5%, 1% and 2% (w/v) chitosan. The design had an experimental size of 5 m × 5 m with the treatments replicated three times, having a buffer zone in a larger plot to minimize cross contamination. Blocks of were identical except for being slightly different soil moisture in with a buffer zone around to improve quality (Figure 1).

 

Table 1: Initial soil physicochemical properties at the experimental site.

Parameter

Value

Electrical Conductivity (EC)

2.3 dS/m

pH

7.5

Texture

Silty clay

Organic Matter (%)

1.2 ± 0.1

Available N (mg/kg)

25.4 ± 1.2

Available P (mg/kg)

12.3 ± 0.8

Available K (mg/kg)

85.6 ± 3.1

Sodium (Na+, mg/kg)

180 ± 5.0

 

Plant material and chitosan preparation

IPA 99 is the most planted wheat in Iraq for its intermediate salinity tolerances and high yields. This variety was the chosen variety for this study. The seeds were obtained from the Iraqi Ministry of Agriculture and then subjected to pre-sowing treatment of the seeds to develop similar germination and to obtain seeds that were pathogen-free. The seeds were cleaned to surface sterilization in which the seeds were soaked in 1% sodium hypochlorite solution for five minutes, rinsed with distilled water for five minutes, and then allowed to air dry condition (Nikbakht et al., 2021). The insect chitosan was chosen for this research project. The chitosan was derived from the exoskeletons of Gryllus bimaculatus (two-spotted cricket), a frequent agricultural pest in Iraq. The methods from Triunfo et al. (2022) were used to extract chitosan from the samples of exoskeleton. The method includes the following procedures for extraction: (1) the protein removed by deproteinization using 1N HCl at 25 °C for 24 hr; (2) removing calcium carbonate residuals removed by demineralization with 1N NaOH; and (3) chitin deacetylated by deacetylation with 50% NaOH, at 90 °C for 2 hr. After, the chitosan had a degree of deacetylation >85% as confirmed using Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR). Chitosan solutions (0.5%, 1%, and 2% w/v) were prepared by dissolving whole powder in 1% acetic acid solution, changing the pH to 5.5, and diluting the solutions accordingly.

Application methods

Chitosan was applied in a two-pronged approach to be most effective for the following experiments: seed coating (producing the seeds for this experiment) and foliar spraying. For the seed coating, 100 grams of wheat seeds were coated with chitosan mixtures (each with 0%, 0.5%, 1%, or 2% chitosan) made with 10 mL of each solution and 0.5 grams of an adhesive agent (gum arabic), air-dried, and planted at 120 kg/ha. For the foliar sprays, applications were conducted at two growth stages (Zadoks stage 25 tillering and stage 45 booting) using a handheld sprayer, applying 500 L/ha of each treatment (for the control we used the same solution without chitosan). Control plots used distilled water with sticking agent in the same volume treatment for each treatment to maintain consistency. We made all applications early in the morning to maximize absorption and minimize evaporation with temperature and humidity appropriate for application. Also, on the days of treatment applications weather conditions were monitored to avoid applying in high winds or rain.

Growth conditions and management

The experimental field was irrigated with saline water (EC 2.0 dS/m) to replicate local irrigation regimes and was pre-planting given 100 kg/ha of nitrogen (N), 50 kg/ha of phosphorus (P₂O₅), and 40 kg/ha of potassium (K₂O) as urea, triple superphosphate, and potassium sulfate. Weeds were controlled manually at 20 and 40 days after sowing and pests were assessed weekly, with no severe infestations observed. Soil moisture was maintained between 70–80% of field capacity by a drip irrigation system, and temperature and humidity were recorded daily with automated sensors to ensure favorable conditions for wheat crop establishment (Table 2 and Figure 2).

 

Table 2: Weather conditions at the experimental site during the 2024–2025 growing season.

Month

Average Temperature (°C)

Total Precipitation (mm)

Relative humidity (%)

November 2024

15.2 ± 1.1

30.5 ± 2.0

65 ± 3

December 2024

10.4 ± 0.9

25.8 ± 1.8

70 ± 4

January 2025

8.6 ± 0.7

20.1 ± 1.5

75 ± 3

February 2025

12.3 ± 1.0

15.4 ± 1.2

68 ± 3

March 2025

18.5 ± 1.2

10.2 ± 1.0

60 ± 4

April 2025

25.6 ± 1.3

5.8 ± 0.8

55 ± 3

May 2025

32.1 ± 1.4

2.1 ± 0.5

50 ± 3

 

 

Data collection and analysis

The following agronomic, physiological, and economic measurements were taken to evaluate how chitosan is affecting crop production parameters:

Results and Discussion

Plant growth parameters

In contrast, the use of insect chitosan has significant effects on height, tiller number, and biomass of wheat with the 1% having is the strongest treatment (Table 3 and Figure 3). The height peaked at 97.3 cm for the 1% treatment versus 85.1 cm for the control (14.3%), the number of tillers went from 3.2 to 4.1 (28.1%), and biomass increased from 32.5 g/plant to 45.2 g/plant (39.1%), all at p < 0.05. The 0.5% and 2% treatments had similar but not as large gains: height of 91.2 cm and 95.4 cm for 0.5% and 2%, tiller number of 3.8 and 4.0, and biomass of 38.7 g and 43.5 g, respectively. These increases presumably resulted from chitosan stimulating root growth and cell elongation via auxin, which thereby allows for greater water and nutrients absorption during saline-stress (Malerba and Cerana, 2020). The improvements with adding insect chitosan seem to plateau at 1% indicating a level above is reached which could account for diminishing returns with the addition of excessive chitosan from the polymer osmotic stress.

 

Table 3: Growth parameters of wheat plants under different chitosan treatments.

Chitosan (%)

Plant height (cm)

Tillers per plant

Biomass (g/plant)

Root length (cm)

0

85.1 ± 2.3a

3.2 ± 0.4a

32.5 ± 1.8a

18.4 ± 1.2a

0.5

91.2 ± 1.9b

3.8 ± 0.3b

38.7 ± 2.1b

21.6 ± 1.0b

1

97.3 ± 2.5c

4.1 ± 0.2c

45.2 ± 2.3c

24.8 ± 1.1c

2

95.4±2.0bc

4.0 ±0.3bc

43.5±1.9bc

23.5±1.0bc

 

 

Yield and quality components

Chitosan application improved yield and yield attribute with the 1% treatment having the absolute best values (Table 4 and Figure 4). Number of grains per spike increased from 38 in the control to 47 (23.7% increase), 1000 grain weight increased from 38.5 g to 40.9 g (6.2% increase), and grain yield increased from 3.8 t/ha to 5.3 t/ha (39.5% increase) with p < 0.05 for all. The other treatments (0.5% and 2%) also improved yield (4.5 t/ha and 5.0 t/ha), but the yield associated with the 2% treatment was probably depressed due to phytotoxicity at greater concentrations. The improvements in yield from chitosan are related to better photosynthetic efficiency and sink strength via chitosan and increased allocation of carbohydrates to grains (Nikbakht et al., 2021).

 

Table 4: Yield components of wheat grown under chitosan treatment.

Chitosan (%)

Grains per spike

1000-Grain weight (g)

Grain yield (t/ha)

Harvest index (%)

0

38 ± 2a

38.5 ± 0.9a

3.8 ± 0.2a

38.2 ± 1.5a

0.5

43 ± 3b

39.7 ± 0.8b

4.5 ± 0.3b

40.5 ± 1.3b

1

47 ± 2c

40.9 ± 0.7c

5.3 ± 0.3c

42.8 ± 1.4c

2

46 ± 3bc

40.3 ± 0.8bc

5.0 ±0.2bc

41.6±1.2bc

 

 

Table 5: Physiological and disease resistance parameters under chitosan treatments.

Chitosan (%)

SPAD Units

Disease severity (0–9)

SOD activity (U/g)

CAT activity (U/g)

0

38.2±1.1a

7.8 ± 0.4a

45.6 ± 2.1a

38.9 ± 1.8a

0.5

42.5 ±1.3b

5.4 ± 0.5b

52.3 ± 2.0b

44.5 ± 1.7b

1

45.7 ± 1.0c

3.2 ± 0.3c

58.9 ± 2.2c

49.8 ± 1.9c

2

44.9±1.2bc

3.6 ± 0.4c

56.4 ±2.1bc

47.2 ±1.8bc

 

Photosynthesis and disease resistance

Chitosan increased chlorophyll content and decreased Fusarium severity, with the 1% treatment having the best effect overall (Table 5). SPAD readings increased from 38.2 for the control to 45.7 (19.6% increase), and severity decreased from 7.8 to 3.2 (59% decrease) for the 1% treatment, both with p < 0.05. The 0.5% treatment (42.5 SPAD, 5.4 severity), and 2% treatment (44.9 SPAD, 3.6 severity) also achieved better values for these indicators, indicating some degree of effectiveness at all concentrations tested (Figure 5). The increase in chlorophyll content likely demonstrates chitosan’s capability to protect photosynthetic pigments from lethal levels of ROS damage, and the decrease in severity implies chitosan activated defense genes including chitinase and PR-1 (Chouhan et al., 2022).

 

Table 6: Economic analysis of applying chitosan in wheat production.

Chitosan (%)

Cost (USD/ha)

Return (USD/ha)

Benefit:Cost Ratio

Net Profit (USD/ha)

0

0

760

-

760

0.5

25

900

3.0

875

1

40

1060

3.5

1020

2

55

1000

2.8

945

 

Economic return analysis

Economic analysis revealed significant benefits of using chitosan (Table 5 and Figure 6). The 1% treatment had the highest economic return (1060 USD/ha) at a cost of 40 USD/ha for a benefit-cost ratio of 3.5. The 0.50% was 900 USD/ha with a ratio of 3.0 and the 2% was 1000 USD/ha with a ratio of 2.8. The control treated with water was 760 USD/ha with no additional cost. The 1% treatment was more profitable than the 0.5% or 2% possibilities because of it being more economical with the additional economic benefits from it improved yield (Rehman et al., 2023).

 

The increase in growth is consistent with chitosan’s ability to enhance root growth, improve auxin signal for nutrient absorption, and especially under salt stress (Malerba and Cerana, 2020). The improvement in yield indicates there are increases in the strength of the sink, either via improved photosynthetic efficiency or increased partitioning of carbohydrates (Nikbakht et al., 2021). Decreased severity of Fusarium provides support for chitosan’s ability to elicit an induced defence response in plants which was also supported by our increased SOD and CAT activity which mitigated oxidative stress (Chouhan et al., 2022). There was economic viability of the 1% treatment which provides a practical alternative to synthetic inputs as a sustainable solution to the Iraqi farmer. This research will fit into the overall global trend of biostimulants, particularly in regions with significant environmental stressors, and encourages future research on long-term soil health and scaling biostimulants to larger acreages.

Conclusions and Recommendations

Chitosan derived from insects at 1% optimally facilitated the growth of wheat plants, increase yields, increased photosynthetic characteristics, disease resistance and economic returns under field conditions of the country of Iraq. This research suggests that chitosan be utilized as a biological stimulant and greater commitment to its utilization would mean wider field study evaluations along with prospective farmer education and support from the government as part of national wheat production commitments that are climate resilient to climate change and food security. Additionally, this research demonstrated that insect chitosan has promise in decrease reliance on agrochemicals with the accompanying benefits of environmental sustainability and restoring soil health. The dual potentiality of insect chitosan as a growth promoter and plant defense elicitor makes it a strategic input for climate smart agricultural conditions in arid, and semi-arid regions. Future studies should also assess the impact of these sustainable agricultural practices with other biostimulants or as part of the integrated pest management and long-term studies of soil microbiomes to assess ecological impacts.

Acknowledgments

The authors thank the Iraqi Ministry of Agriculture and the University of Baghdad for its financial and administrative assistance which provided an essential platform for the research. They are grateful to the technical staff at the Agricultural Research Station in Baghdad for their help in managing the field and collecting relevant data. During the study period, people from local farmers to extension officers provided the authors with important details tilting the knowledge scales, else the more towards an uncertain direction. The authors would especially want to thank the brave laboratory technicians for the sample processing and that they ensured proper data collection and processing. Finally, the authors appreciate the comments and constructive feedback from viable peer reviewers and academic mentors who greatly helped improve the quality and rigor of this manuscript.

Novelty Statement

This study highlights, for the first time in Iraq, the effectiveness of insect-derived chitosan in enhancing wheat productivity, disease resistance, and physiological resilience under arid conditions.

Authors’ Contributions

Ibrahim Ayad jihad: Designed the study, sixth conducted the microbial analysis

Mustafa Mudhafar, Noor F. Abdul Hassan: conducted the experiments, Conducted the microbial analysis

Mariam Jamal Abd Alkareem٤ Maryam Mansoor Mathkoor: Conducted the experiments

Qais R. Lahhob: Conducted the microbial analysis

All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

Generative AI or AI assisted technology statement

The author’s declare that no Gen AI was used in the creation of this manuscript.

Conflict of interest

The authors did not disclose any conflict of interest that might have influenced the design, conduct, or reporting of the research.

References

Abobatta, W.F. 2023. Chitosan: A promising plant stimulant. Int. J. Agric. Sci. Food Technol., 9(4): 98-103. https://doi.org/10.17352/2455-815X.000199

Alenazi, M.M., A.M. El-Ebidy, O.A. El-Shehaby, M.F. Seleiman, K.J. Aldhuwaib, & H.M.M. Abdel-Aziz. 2024. Chitosan and chitosan nanoparticles differentially alleviate salinity stress in Phaseolus vulgaris L. Plant., 13(3): 398. https://doi.org/10.3390/plants13030398

Bolboli, M. et al. 2025. Chitosan-mediated mitigation of salt stress in wheat (Triticum aestivum) tissue culture. Plant Cell Tissue Organ Culture. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11240-025-03093-4

Chatterjee, S. and B.P. Chatterjee. 2023. Chitosan-induced biotic stress tolerance and crosstalk with phytohormones, antioxidants, and other signalling molecules. Front. Plant Sci., 14: 1217822. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpls.2023.1217822

Chouhan, D. et al. 2022. Application of nickel-chitosan nanoconjugate as antifungal agent for Fusarium rot of wheat. Scient. Repor., 12:14518. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-022-18670-2

El-Kassas, H.Y. et al. 2021. Attenuation of negative effects of saline stress in wheat plant by chitosan with CaCO₃. Bullet. Nation. Res. Centre., 45: 123. https://doi.org/10.1186/s42269-021-00596-w

Gholizadeh, F. et al. 2025. Enhancing wheat resilience to salt stress through chitosan–proline and chitosan–glycine nanotechnology. Scient. Report., 15: 11126. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-025-91496-w

Hajihashemi, S. and S. Kazemi. 2022. The potential of foliar application of nano-chitosan-encapsulated nano-silicon donor in amelioration the adverse effect of salinity in the wheat plant. BMC Plant Biol., 22: 148. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12870-022-03531-x

Kandil, A.A. 2022. Seedling characteristics of wheat as affected by soaking with chitosan and proline under salinity stress. Mendeley Data. https://doi.org/10.17632/4fm7tybfyr.1

Liu, H. et al. 2022. Chitin triggers tissue-specific immunity in wheat associated with Fusarium head blight. Plant Direct., 6(2): e538. https://doi.org/10.1002/pld3.538

Malerba, M. and R. Cerana. 2020. Chitin- and chitosan-based derivatives in plant protection against biotic and abiotic stresses. Polysacchar., 1, 21–30. https://doi.org/10.3390/polysaccharides1010003

Mei, Z. P. Kuzhir, & G. Godeau. 2024. Update on chitin and chitosan from insects: sources, production, characterization. Biomimet., 9: 297. https://doi.org/10.3390/biomimetics9050297

Mohan, K. et al. 2022. Green and eco-friendly approaches for the extraction of chitin and chitosan: A review. Carbohyd. Polym., 287: 119349. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.carbpol.2022.119349

Nikbakht, J. et al. 2021. Foliar application of chitosan nanoparticles enhances antioxidant defense in wheat under drought. Agron., 11(9), 1774. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy11091774

Rehman, K. et al. 2023. Insect-derived chitin and chitosan: A still unexploited resource. Sustaina., 15: 4864. https://doi.org/10.3390/su15064864

Saberi Riseh, R. et al. 2021. Chitosan-induced activation of the antioxidant defense system in durum wheat under salinity. Plant., 10(7): 1365. https://doi.org/10.3390/plants10071365

Saenz-Mendoza, A.I. et al. 2023. Insects as a potential source of chitin and chitosan: characterization. Emirat. J. Food Agric., 35(5): 3095. https://doi.org/10.9755/ejfa.2023.v35.i5.3095

Schäfer, H.L., L. Gandras, L. Schneider, M. Witthohn, K. Troidl, K. Muffler, & C.K. Weiss. 2025. Analysis, properties, and applications of insect-derived chitosan: A sustainable path to functional polysaccharide materials. Gel., 11(4): 291. https://doi.org/10.3390/gels11040291

Shahrajabian, M.H., C. Chaski, N. Polyzos, N. Tzortzakis, & S.A. Petropoulos. 2021. Sustainable agriculture systems in vegetable production using chitin and chitosan as plant biostimulants. Biomolecul., 11: 819. https://doi.org/10.3390/biom11060819

Silva, A.C.Q., A.J.D. Silvestre, C. Vilela, & C.S.R. Freire. 2021. Natural polymers-based materials: A contribution to a greener future. Molecul., 27: 94. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules27010094

Triunfo, M. et al. 2022. Characterization of chitin and chitosan derived from Hermetia illucens: A further step in circular economy process. Scient. Repor., 12: 12345. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-022-10423-5