Research Article

Synergistic Effects of Parthenium Biochar, Fertilizers, and Weed Management Strategies on Morphological Development of Maize (Zea mays L.)

Muhammad Ibrahim1, Haroon Khan*1 and Bakhtiar Gul1

1Department of Weed Science and Botany, The University of Agriculture Peshawar, 25130 Pakistan.

Received | September 30, 2025; Accepted | March 6, 2026; Published | August 22, 2026

*Correspondence | Haroon Khan, Department of Weed Science and Botany, The University of Agriculture Peshawar, 25130 Pakistan; Email: [email protected]

Citation | Ibrahim, M., H. Khan and B. Gul. 2026. Synergistic effects of parthenium biochar, fertilizers, and weed management strategies on morphological development of maize (Zea mays L.). Sarhad Journal of Agriculture, 42(4): 1474-1488.

DOI | https://dx.doi.org/10.17582/journal.sja/2026/42.4.1474.1488

Keywords | Maize,Weed density, Parthenium-Biochar, Herbicides, Nutrients

Copyright: 2026 by the authors. Licensee ResearchersLinks Ltd, England, UK.

This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

Introduction

Maize (Zea mays L.) occupies the third position among cereal crop in Pakistan, following wheat and rice crop. In addition to grain productions, maize also provides several products like starch, corn syrup, and other products like feed for livestock and poultry (Shawa et al., 2019). Ahmad et al. (2018) stated that maize contains protein, sugar, ash, fiber, and fat, 10%, 3%, 17%, 8.5% and 4.8% respectively. It is considered one of the highest yielding cereal crop. America is producing 371 million metric tons, is the top maize-producing country, followed by Brazil, Argentina, China and India (Langyan et al., 2022). Pakistan as 22nd largest maize producer (Hussain et al., 2019). It produces 10.183 million tons. Weeds as primary biotic factor is responsible for the reduction in the maize yield. Primarily because weed compete with crops for space, moisture, light and nutrients, which then results in decline in both quantity and quality, as per Sharma and Rayamajhi, 2022, research, weeds are responsible for this low yield. Effective weed control strategies can be applied to manage this reduction in yield. For this reason, proper soil analysis and timely use of inputs is vital for optimum crop yield according to (Raniro, 2023). Some are weeds are invasive weeds, like Parthenium is a major weed that greatly affects agriculture and wastelands in Pakistan. It infests a variety of soils and is propagated by water, wind, vehicles and agricultural machinery (Muche et al., 2022). According to Shetty and Prakash (2020), its innate ability to adapt to a range of environments makes it a problem for farmers. The most critical period for weed competition in maize is the early stage of its vegetative growth, according to Hossain et al. 2019. The maize crop is vulnerable in the early stages. So, weed control should be implemented in the early stage. Ullah et al., (2008) further emphasize the application of not a single approach, but for effective weed control, he observes that chemical weed control, mechanical, and cultural approaches should be used in combination for a better result. Adopting integrated weed management resulted in better weed management and cost-effectiveness, which are accessible locally. Integrated weed management should incorporate all techniques that are economical and available for successful weed management. Finally, recent studies have shown the inclusion of biochar application as one of the promising weed-controlling techniques that can be included within integrated weed management (Ullah et al., 2022). Biochar is more effective when used at the time of seedbed preparation and controls weeds during the critical period of the crop (Much et al., 2022). Many of the current studies have utilized chemicals for weed control or implementing organic amendments to soil but they have not focused on combining both methods to achieve optimal performance. Therefore, a comprehensive field evaluation is needed to evaluate how parthenium biochar can be combined with fertilization and weed control practices to increase productivity of maize. The present study investigates how parthenium biochar combined with fertilizers and weed control strategies, can enhance maize productivity.

Materials and Methods

The experiments were conducted at the University of Agriculture, Peshawar’s Agronomy Research Farm (ARF), Peshawar (34.010 N and 71.580 E), at 359 m above sea level, during the summer of 2022 and 2023. The main block consisted of nutrient sources i.e. 1. Parthenium biochar (PBC) + NPK 2. NPK Nitrogen, Phosphorus, Potassium (NPK), 3. Nitrophos + Zinc, 4. Nitrophos + Boran. Commercially manufactured by Engro Fertilizers Zarkhez Khas NPK (15:15:15) fertilizer were applied at 150 kg ha-¹. The maize variety ‘Azam’ was sown at a rate of 30 kg ha-1 on July 20, 2022, and replicated in 2023. Azam variety was selected due to its high germination rate, wide adaptability to local agroclimatic conditions. The following treatments were assigned to subplots: 1. Primextra Gold 720 SC (2 a.i. kg ha-¹), 2. Corncane 40% OD (2 a.i. kg ha-¹), 3. Panzer 58% SE (1.27 a.i. kg ha-¹), 4. Panzer 58% SE (1.27 a.i. kg ha-¹), 5. Atrazine 38% SC (6.1 a.i. kg ha-¹), 6. Find 8% OF (1.35 a.i. kg ha-¹), 7. Hand weeding at 25 DAS, 8. Hand weeding at 45 DAS, and 9. Control. The maize variety ‘Azam’ was sown at 30 kg ha-1 on July 7th, 2022, and repeated in 2023. Each sub-plot was 5x3 m2, with 5 rows, 75 cm apart from the next, with 25 cm distance between plants. Parthenium biochar + NPK was treated at 3 t ha-1 one week before sowing, and synthetic fertilizers were applied at the time of sowing. Parthenium biochar was prepared by pyrolysis using a metal container 24 inches in diameter and 40 inches in height. To allow for some airflow, tiny holes were drilled inside the container. After burning the parthenium biomass for 4-5 hours. The produced biochar was cooled outside of the container and crushed into tiny pieces for subsequent use. This study was supported by (Mechler et al., 2018). Similarly, NPK (150 kg ha-1), Nitrophorus (150 kg ha-1) + Zn 3 kg ha-1, and NP (150 kg ha-1) + Boron 3 Kg ha-1 all in their recommended doses, were applied at sowing time.

During the course of experiments, data were recorded on the following parameters;

Weed density (m--2)

Weed density was recorded at crop maturity by randomly placing a quadrate m-2 three times within each plot. The total number of weeds inside each quadrate was counted and expressed as the number of weeds per square meter.

Days to emergence

Seedling emergence was observed daily from the planting date, and the number of days required for approximately 80% emergence in each unit was recorded as days to emergence.

Days to 50% tasseling

The number of days from planting to the time when at least 50% of the plants produced tassels was recorded. Observations were made in five maize rows randomly selected from each experimental plot.

Leaf area per plant (cm²)

Leaf area was measured using a leaf area meter. The same five maize plants used for height measurements were selected, and their leaves were cut with scissors, placed in plastic bags, and analyzed. The average leaf area per plant was then calculated.

Soil organic matter (%)

Soil organic matter was determined following the standard method (OM analysis) and expressed as a percentage.

W1 = weight of dry compost sample

W2 = weight of ash

Grain crude protein content (%)

Crude protein content in maize grains was determined using the Kjeldahl method. Nitrogen content was first measured and then converted to protein content using the formula:

Crude Protein (%) = Nitrogen (%) × 6.25.

Statistical analysis

The acquired data were statistically analyzed using analysis of variance (ANOVA), RCBD-appropriate procedures, and a split-plot layout with the Statistix 8.1 (Tallahassee, Florida). Where the F-value was significant, the LSD test was performed to compare means at the 0.05% probability level, as advised by Steel and Torrie (1980).

Results and Discussions

Weed density (m-2)

Statistical analysis of the data shows that “Nutrient blocks” and “treatments” had a substantial effect on weed density m-2 in both seasons 2022 and 2023. Parthenium biochar (PBC) + NPK (23.65 m-2) block followed by Nitrophos+Znic had the lowest weed density (2898 m-2). Among the nutrient sources,

 

they were statistically at par with each other. Whereas the highest weed density (31.17 m-2) was recorded in the NPK block followed by Nitrophos + Boron (30.07 m-2). Biochar is an important component of integrated weed management, facilitating the adoption of more sustainable and controlled farming practices. Our results are in line with Tauseef et al. (2012), who stated that the maximum dose of biochar reduces the weed biomass in maize. Different weed management treatments showed that the lowest weed density (15.33 m-2) was noted in Atrazine, which was then followed by Primextra Gold (25.21 m-2). While the maximum weed density (57.71 m-2) was recorded in the control treatment, followed by the Find OF (32.33 m-2) treatment. The integration of biochar alongside either pre-emergence or post-emergence herbicide application successfully controlled weeds and enhanced the physiological parameters of maize. Our findings align with those published by Alptekin et al. (2023), who reported that atrazine reduced weed pressure in maize fields compared to the control plots. Consistent with Haq and Jehangir (2020), both Atrazine and Primextra Gold were found to be highly effective for weed management in maize, also contributing to improved crop yield. The combined year analysis revealed a significant difference in weed density between the two years, with the maximum weed density (30.68 m-²) being recorded during 2023 compared to 2022 (26.26 m-²). Similarly, the interaction between nutrients × treatments and year × nutrients was found to be significant (Figure 1). Furthermore, the minimum weed density was observed in the PBC+NPK and Atrazine treatments.Tauseef et al. (2012) also reported similar findings, noting that increases in rainfall heightened the chance of new weed germination.

 

Table 1: The effect of different nutrients and control strategies regimes on weed density (m-2) in maize crop during 2022 and 2023

Main plots (Nutrients)	Weed density m-2		Mean
	2022	2023
Parthenium Biochar+ NPK	27.67 c	19.63 b	23.65 b
NPK @ 150 kg ha-1	30.93 b	31.41 a	31.17 a
NP + Zn @ 150 + 3 kg ha-1	31.52 ab	26.44 a	28.98 a
NP + B @ 150 + 3 kg ha-1	32.59 a	27.56 a	30.07a
LSD0.05			2.45
Sub plots (Weed control treatments)
Primextra Gold 720 SC (Pre)	28 fg	23 f	25.5 e
Corncane 40% OD (Post)	29.08 ef	24.75 e	26.92 d
Panzer 58% SE (Pre)	31.25 cd	26.92 cd	29.08 c
Panzer 58% SE (Post)	29.92 de	25.58 de	27.75 d
Atrazine 38% SC (Post)	17.5 h	13.17 g	15.33 f
Find 8% OF (Post)	34.5 b	30.17 b	32.33 b
Hand weeding (25 Days after sowing)	32.25 c	27.92 c	30.08 c
Hand weeding (45 Days after sowing)	32.17 b	27.83 c	25.21 e
Control	56.42 a	59 a	57.71 a
LSD0.05			1.07
Year 2022			26.26 b
Year 2023			30.68 a
Interactions	Significance
Nutrients × Treatments	**
Year× Nutrients	*
Year × Treatments	NS
Year × Nutrients × Treatments	NS

 

Significant (*)

Highly significant (**)

Non-significant (NS)

 

Table 2: The effect of different nutrients and weed control strategies on days to emergence (%) in maize crop during 2022 and 2023

Main plots (Nutrients)	Days to emergence		Mean
	2022	2023
PartheniumBiochar+ NPK	6.59 d	8.15 b	7.37 c
NPK @ 150kg ha-1	9.78 b	8.04 bc	8.91 a
NP + Zn @ 150 + 3 kg ha-1	8.04 c	8.74 a	8.39 b
NP + B @ 150 + 3 kg ha-1	10.59 a	7.63 c	9.11 a
LSD0.05			0.30
Sub plots (Weed control tretaments)
Primextra gold 720 SC (Pre)	9.33 ab	8.42 ab	8.87 a
Corncane 40% OD (Post)	8.33 cd	7.83 b	8 cd
Panzer 58% SE (Pre)	8.83 abcd	7.83 b	8.3 bcd
Panzer 58% SE (Post)	8.58 bcd	8.58 a	8.58 abc
Atrazine 38% SC (Post)	8.25 cd	8.17 ab	8.21 bcd
Find 8% OF (Post)	9.58 a	8.25 ab	8.92 a
Hand weeding (25 Days after sowing)	9 ab	8.25 ab	8.63 ab
Hand weeding (45 Days after sowing)	8.83 abcd	8 ab	8.4 3abcd
Control	8 d	7.92 ab	7.96 d
LSD0.05			0.53
Year 2022			8.14 b
Year 2023			8.75 a
Interactions			NS
Nutrients × Treatments	*
Year× Nutrients	**
Year × Treatments	NS
Year × Nutrients × Treatments	NS

 

Significant (*)

Highly significant (**)

Non-significant (NS)

 

Days to emergence

The comprehensive statistical evaluation of the collected data indicated that the diverse array of nutrients and weed management strategies implemented had a significant influence on the number of days required for emergence, a summary of which is presented in Table 2. When examining the various nutrient sources, it was observed that the treatment combining PBC+NPK resulted in the shortest duration days to emergence (7.37). This was followed sequentially by the NPK treatment alone and the NP+B combination, which recorded emergence times of 8.39 and 8.91) respectively. Supporting this finding, Sohi et al. (2009) previously stated that biochar holds beneficial effects on soil health and contributes positively towards increased maize yield. It is widely recognized that germination and subsequent seedling emergence represent essential processes fundamental to plant growth and ensuring survival throughout their entire life cycle, as highlighted by Hadas (2004). However, within the nutrient treatments, the highest number of days to emergence (9.11) was noted in the NP+B treated block. Shifting the focus to the data concerning various weed management treatments, the treatment designated as control exhibited the least number of days to emergence (7.96), followed by Atrazine (8.21) treatment. Conversely, the treatment utilizing Primextra Gold resulted in the maximum number of days to emergence (8.87). Dogra and Sood (2012) stated that the presence of allelochemicals within Parthenium residues has been demonstrated to exert a negative impact on plant germination and subsequent seedling growth. However, the findings of this study showed that NPK significantly improved the phenological characteristics of maize. This observation strongly suggests that the potentially

 

inhibitory allelochemicals are effectively degraded or lost during the pyrolysis process. The analysis combining data from both years indicated variability in the number of days to emergence across the experimental period, with the maximum days to emergence (8.75) being observed specifically in the year 2023, in comparison to 2022. Consistent with previous observations, the interaction effects among nutrients × treatments and year × nutrients were again found to be statistically significant (as depicted in Figure 2). Furthermore, the minimum number of days to emergence was documented within the NPK + PBC and control treatment.

Days to 50 % tasseling

The data concerning the number of days required for the appearance of 50% tasseling, as influenced by various fertilizer blocks and treatments, is comprehensively detailed in Table 3. Thorough data analysis confirmed that both the fertilizer blocks and the specific treatments applied exerted a significant effect on the days to reach 50% tasseling throughout the experimental periods of 2022 and 2023, with this detailed analysis presented in Appendix 5. When evaluating the main fertilizer blocks, the minimum number of days to achieve 50% tasseling, recorded at 45.85 days, was observed within the PBC + NPK treated block. This was subsequently followed by the NPK block, which recorded 51.52 days. These two values must be statistically different from each other. In contrast, the maximum number of days to 50% tasseling, amounting to 55.17 days, was documented within the NP+B block. Our experimental findings align well with those reported previously by Ismail et al. (2024) and Hussein et al. (2022), who reported an increase in various growth parameters of maize when higher rates of NPK fertilizer were applied. Turning to the data associated with the various weed management treatments, the maximum days to 50% tasseling, measured at 44.58 days, was observed in the Atrazine treatment. This was followed by the hand weeding treatment performed at 25 days after sowing (DAS), which recorded 47.92 days. These two values are also statistically different from each other. The remaining weed management treatments exhibited a range of days to 50% tasseling between 51.63 and 53.04 days, indicating a moderate duration. Conversely, the highest number of days to 50% tasseling was recorded at 56.63 days in the control treatment, which served as the weedy check. A similar pattern of results was documented by Imoloame and Omolaiye, (2016), who reported that the presence of

 

Table 3: The effect of different nutrients and weed control strategies on days to 50 % tasseling in maize crop during 2022 and 2023

Main plots (Nutrients)	Days to 50 % tasseling		Mean
	2022	2023
Parthenium Biochar+ NPK	44.85 d	46.85 d	45.85 d
NPK @ 150kg ha-1	50 c	53.04 c	51.52 c
NP + Zn @ 150 + 3 kg ha-1	52.26 b	54.41 b	53.33 b
NP + B @ 150 + 3 kg ha-1	54.04 a	56.3 a	55.17 a
LSD0.05			0.30
Sub plots (Weed control treatments)
Primextra Gold 720 SC (Pre)	50 d	53.25 cd	51.63 c
Corncane 40% OD (Post)	51.67 b	53.92 bc	52.79 b
Panzer 58% SE (Pre)	50.17 cd	53.42 bcd	51.79 c
Panzer 58% SE (Post)	51.42 bc	54.67 ab	53.04 b
Atrazine 38% SC (Post)	43.92 e	45.25 f	44.58 e
Find 8% OF (Post)	52.33 b	52.5 d	52.42 bc
Hand weeding (25 Days after sowing)	46.33 e	49.5 e	47.92 d
Hand weeding (45 Days after sowing)	49.25 d	55.58 a	52.42 bc
Control	57.5 a	55.75 a	56.63 a
LSD0.05			1.00
Year 2022			50.29 b
Year 2023			52.65 a
Interactions			**
Nutrients × Treatments	**
Year× Nutrients	*
Year × Treatments	**
Year × Nutrients × Treatments	NS

 

Significant (*)

Highly significant (**)

Non-significant (NS)

 

weeds caused a delay in the flowering of maize plants. The extended duration to reach 50% tasseling observed in the control treatments can be attributed directly to the lack of weed control, allowing uninterrupted weed competition. However, the comparatively lower number of days to 50% tasseling observed in the hand weeding and herbicide treatments was a direct result of their high efficiency in controlling weed populations. Further supporting this conclusion is the work of Hussain et al. (2022), who stated clearly that weed infestations delayed the normal flowering process of maize plants. The combined year analysis revealed statistically significant variations in the days to 50% tasseling across both experimental years. Specifically, the highest number of days to 50% tasseling (52.65 days) was noted during the year 2023, whereas the minimum number of days to 50% tasseling (50.29 days) was found during the year 2022. As observed in previous analyses, the interaction effects among nutrients × treatments, year × nutrients, and year × treatments were again found to be statistically significant, as illustrated in Figure 3. Furthermore, the lowest number of days to 50% tasseling was specifically noted within the treatment combination of PBC+NPK × post-emergence herbicide Atrazine. Conversely, the highest number of days to 50% tasseling was recorded in the treatments NP + B and the control (weedy check).

Leaf area plant-1 (cm2)

The extent of leaf area is recognized for its significant impact on the processes of photosynthesis andultimately, the overall output of the maize crop. An increased leaf area facilitates greater light interception, a factor that profoundly influences maize productivity, as noted by Duan et al. (2024).

 

The specific data concerning leaf area plant-1, as it was influenced by several distinct nutrients and weed management strategies, is systematically presented for review in Table 4. Comprehensive data analysis revealed that both the nutrients and the specific treatments implemented exerted a significant effect on the measurement of leaf area plant-1 throughout the experimental durations in both 2022 and 2023. When evaluating the nutrient blocks, the lowest measurement of leaf area plant-1, recorded at 270.76 cm², was measured within the NP+B treated block. This value was followed by that measured in the NP + Zn block, which recorded 298.58 cm²; these two measurements are statistically different from each other. Conversely, the highest leaf area plant-1 measurement, amounting to 320.46 cm², was recorded in the NPK + PBC block, followed closely by 309.26 cm² measured in the NP+Zn treated block. Using biochar along with NPK fertilizer is known to help reduce the ability of soil to retain nutrients from an agronomic aspect. The observed high leaf area within plots receiving NPK fertilizer application could be logically associated with enhanced nutrient absorption, potentially further increased by the presence of biochar, a mechanism supported by findings from Steiner et al. (2008). Shifting focus to the data regarding the various weed management treatments, the lowest measurement of leaf area plant-1, 268.83 cm², was measured in the control treatment designated as the weedy check. This was followed by a measurement of 279.25 cm² observed in the hand weeding treatment performed at 45 days after sowing (DAS). The remaining weed management treatments exhibited a range of leaf area plant-1 measurements from 279 cm² to 304 cm²,

 

Table 4: The effect of different nutrients and weed control strategies on leaf area (cm2) in maize crop during 2022 and 2023

Main plots (Nutrients)	Leaf area (cm2)		Mean
	2022	2023
Parthenium Biochar+ NPK	316.96 a	323.96 a	320.46 a
NPK @ 150 kg ha-1	313.26 b	305.26 b	309.26 b
NP + Zn @ 150 + 3 kg ha-1	302.59 c	294.59 c	298.59 c
NP + B @ 150 + 3 kg ha-1	273.26 d	268.26 d	270.76 d
LSD0.05			0.87
Sub plots (Weed control treatments)
Primextra Gold 720 SC (Pre)	320 b	316.5 b	318.25 b
Corncane 40% OD (Post)	293 e	289.5 e	291.252 e
Panzer 58% SE (Pre)	298.58 d	295.08 d	296.83 d
Panzer 58% SE (Post)	306 c	302.5 c	304.25 c
Atrazine 38% SC (Post)	344.25 a	340.75 a	342.5 a
Find 8% OF (Post)	281.17 f	277.67 f	279.42 f
Hand weeding (25 Days after sowing)	319.08 b	315.58 b	317.33 b
Hand weeding (45 Days after sowing)	281 f	277.5 f	279.25 f
Control	270.58 g	267.08 g	268.83 g
LSD0.05			3.49
Year 2022			301.52 a
Year 2023			298.02 b
Interactions			NS
Nutrients × Treatments	**
Year× Nutrients	**
Year × Treatments	NS
Year × Nutrients × Treatments	NS

 

Significant (*); Highly significant (**); Non-significant (NS)

 

indicating a moderate leaf area, and these values were found to be statistically alike. In contrast, the maximum leaf area plant-1 measurement was recorded at 342.50 cm² within the Atrazine treatment. This was followed by measurements of 317.33 cm² and 318.25 cm² observed in the Primextra Gold and hand weeding (25 DAS) treatments, respectively; these latter values were statistically similar to each other. The minimal leaf area plant-1 measurement observed in the control treatments was a direct consequence of uninterrupted weed competition, which suppressed crop growth. Results of a similar nature were documented by Hassan et al. (2010), who explained that leaf area decreased in correlation with weed infestation levels but increased significantly with the implementation of effective weed control measures. However, the maximum leaf area plant-1 measurements observed in the hand weeding and herbicide treatments were direct results of their high efficiency in controlling weed populations, thereby minimizing competition. The combined year analysis revealed statistically significant variations in leaf area plant-1 during the course of both experimental years. Specifically, the highest leaf area plant-1 measurement, 301.52 cm², was found during the year 2022, whereas the lowest measurement, 298.02 cm-², was noted during the year 2023. Consistent with previous observations, the interaction effects among nutrients × treatments and year × nutrients were again found to be statistically significant. Furthermore, the lowest leaf area plant-1 measurement was measured in the specific treatment combination of NP+B × control (weedy check), while the highest leaf area plant-1 measurement was recorded in the treatment combination involving PBC+NPK × Atrazine. The significance of the interaction effects between nutrient × treatment and year × nutrients is visually presented and further detailed in Figure 4.

Soil organic matter (%)

The data concerning soil organic matter, as it was

 

influenced by the various fertilizer blocks and treatments applied, are meticulously detailed in Table 5. A thorough statistical analysis of this data revealed that both the nutrients and weed management treatments had a significant influence on the levels of soil organic matter measured during the experimental periods of both 2022 and 2023. The mean data summarizing the influence of the various fertilizer applications and weed management strategies. When evaluating the effects among the main nutrients blocks, the maximum level of soil organic matter, recorded at 0.64, was observed in the PBC+NPK treatment. This was closely followed by the NP+Zn treated block, which recorded a value of 0.63. On the other hand, the minimum level of soil organic matter, measured at 0.62, was documented within the NP+B treated block. Mitchell (2015), Stated that biochar can stimulate microbial activity, which accelerates the decomposition of soil organic matter and releases essential nutrients into the soil. Analysis of the weed management treatments found that the control treatment had the lowest soil organic matter (0.53%). The highest levels of soil organic matter, measured at 0.65, were observed in both the Atrazine and Primextra Gold treatments. The treatments involving hand weeding and herbicide application generally exhibited the highest levels of soil organic matter, a likely consequence of their higher efficacy in weed control, which presumably allowed the maize crop greater access to resources. Our results align well and were supported by findings from Yuan et al. (2011), who reported that biochar application enhanced the soil organic matter content of the soil. Furthermore, Singh et al. (2022) reported that incorporating biochar into soil can modify the behavior of atrazine, potentially enhancing its efficacy by reducing its leaching and bioavailability. The combined year analysis revealed statistically significant variations in soil organic matter levels across the two experimental years. Specifically, the maximum soil organic matter level, 0.64, was recorded during the year 2022, whereas the minimum level, 0.62, was found during the year 2023. These two values across years are statistically different from each other. As observed previously, the interaction effect among nutrients × treatments were again found to be statistically significant, as depicted in Figure 5. Moreover, the minimum level of soil organic matter was noted within the treatment combinations involving NP+B and the control (weedy check). On the other hand, the highest levels of soil organic matter were recorded in the interaction treatment combinations of PBC+NPK × herbicide Primextra Gold and PBC+NPK × Atrazine.

 

Table 5: The effect of different nutrients and weed control strategies on soil organic matter formula in maize crop during 2022 and 2023

Main plots (Nutrients)	Soil organic matter		Mean
	2022	2023
Parthenium Biochar+ NPK	0.65 a	0.63 a	0.64 a
NPK @ 150 kg ha-1	0.63 bc	0.62 b	0.62 b
NP + Zn @ 150 + 3 kg ha-1	0.64ab	0.62 b	0.63 ab
NP + B @ 150 + 3 kg ha-1	0.63 c	0.61 ab	0.62 b
LSD0.01			0.01
Sub plots (Weed control treatments)
Primextra Gold 720 SC (Pre)	0.66 a	0.64 a	0.65 a
Corncane 40% OD (Post)	0.65 a	0.63 a	0.64 ab
Panzer 58% SE (Pre)	0.63 a	0.62 b	0.62 b
Panzer 58% SE (Post)	0.62 a	0.61 a	0.61 ab
Atrazine 38% SC (Post)	0.66 a	0.64 a	0.65 a
Find 8% OF (Post)	0.63 a	0.62 b	0.62 b
Hand weeding (25 Days after sowing)	0.65 a	0.63 a	0.64 ab
Hand weeding (45 Days after sowing)	0.63 b	0.63 a	0.63 b
Control	0.53 c	0.54 b	0.53 c
LSD0.01			0.01
Year 2022			0.64 a
Year 2023			0.62 a
Interactions			*
Nutrients × Treatments	**
Year× Nutrients	NS
Year × Treatments	NS
Year × Nutrients × Treatments	NS

 

Significant (*); Highly significant (**); Non-significant (NS)

 

 

Table 6: The effect of different nutrients and weed control strategies on grain crude protein content (%) in maize crop during 2022 and 2023.

Main plots (Nutrients)	Grain crude protein content (%)		Mean
	2022	2023
Parthenium Biochar+ NPK	12.82 a	12.48 a	12.65 a
NPK @ 150 kg ha-1	12.85 a	12.43ab	12.64 a
NP + Zn @ 150 + 3 kg ha-1	12.46 b	12.04 c	12.26 b
NP + B @ 150 + 3 kg ha-1	12.76 a	12.34 b	12.56 a
LSD0.05			0.11
Sub plots (Weed control treatments)
Primextra gold 720 SC (Pre)	12.22de	11.82 e	12.02 f
Corncane 40% OD (Post)	12.38 d	11.98 e	12.18 e
Panzer 58% SE (Pre)	13.02 b	12.62bc	12.82bc
Panzer 58% SE (Post)	12.65 c	12.25 d	12.45 d
Atrazine 38% SC (Post)	13.83 a	13.55 a	13.69 a
Find 8% OF (Post)	12.23de	11.82 e	12.02 f
Hand weeding (25 Days after sowing)	12.96 b	12.56 c	12.76 c
Hand weeding (45 Days after sowing)	12.65 c	12.25 d	12.45 d
Control	12.09 e	11.54 f	11.81 g
LSD0.01			0.14
Year 2022			12.72 a
Year 2023			12.32 b
Interactions			**
Nutrients × Treatments	**
Year× Nutrients	NS
Year × Treatments	NS
Year × Nutrients × Treatments	NS

 

Significant (*); Highly significant (**); Non-significant (NS)

 

Grain crude protein content (%)

The data concerning crude protein content, as it was affected by the various nutrients and weed management implemented, is systematically presented for analysis in Table 6. Statistical analysis confirmed that the nutrients and treatments applied had a significant impact on the measured crude protein content throughout the experimental periods of 2022 and 2023. A mean data analysis summarizing the effects of the various fertilizer applications and weed management strategies on crude protein content. When examining the main nutrients blocks, the minimum crude protein content, recorded at 12.26%, was measured within the NP+Zn treated block. These specific values are statistically comparable with each other (at par). Conversely, the maximum crude protein content levels, measured at 12.65%, 12.64%, and 12.56%, were recorded in the PBC+NPK, NPK, and NP+Zn blocks, respectively. These highest values are also statistically comparable with each other (at par). It has been documented that biochar treatment can enhance the protein and oil content of maize grain.

According to Sarwar et al. (2023), stated that the application of biochar alongside NPK significantly increased the starch and crude protein content of maize grain. Shifting focus to the data regarding the various weed management treatments, the minimum crude protein content, 11.81%, was observed in the control treatment. This was followed by a measurement of 12.02% observed in the post-emergence herbicide Find 8% treatment. The maximum crude protein content, 13.69%, was observed in the herbicide atrazine treatment, followed by 12.76% observed in the hand weeding treatment performed at 25 days after sowing (DAS). The minimal crude protein content observed in the control treatments was attributed to the presence of uninterrupted weed competition, which negatively impacted crop development. However, the maximum grain protein content observed in the hand weeding and herbicide treatments was a direct result of their maximum weed control efficiency, allowing the maize crop to increase. These findings are consistent with previous studies demonstrating that the application of biochar can enhance the crude protein content of grain, an effect likely mediated by improved soil fertility and nutrient availability (Alkharabsheh et al., 2021).

In a specific study conducted by Ullah et al. (2022), it was reported that the maize grain protein content significantly increased when biochar was applied in combination with NPK fertilizer. The combined year analysis revealed statistically significant variations in crude protein content during the course of both experimental years. Specifically, the highest crude protein content, 12.72%, was recorded during the year 2022, whereas the minimum crude protein content, 12.32%, was found during the year 2023. As before, the interaction among nutrients × treatments were again found to be statistically significant, as illustrated in Figure 6. Moreover, the lowest level of crude protein content was noted within the specific treatment combination of NP+B × control. Conversely, the

 

highest level of crude protein content was noted in the treatment combination involving PBC+NPK × Atrazine.

Conclusions and Recommendations

The findings of this study demonstrate that the application of Parthenium biochar (PBC) at a rate of 3 tons ha-¹, when combined with NPK fertilizer at 150 kg ha-¹, significantly enhanced several key phenological parameters observed in the maize crop. Specifically, the PBC+NPK treatment combination proved effective in improving metrics such as days to emergence, the timing of 50% tasseling, leaf area plant-1 (cm²), soil organic matter levels, and the grains crude protein content. Furthermore, this PBC+NPK combination yielded the highest level of weed control efficacy, which was also noted to be the most economical approach. While sole NPK fertilizer application did contribute to an increase in crop yield, it also led to a higher degree of weed infestation when compared to the PBC + NPK treatment, which maintained significantly lower weed populations. Moreover, among the herbicides evaluated, both Atrazine and Primextra Gold were found to be significantly effective in controlling weed growth.

Acknowledgments

We sincerely acknowledge the contributions and precious research support provided by the Department of Weed Science and Botany, along with the Directorate of Soil & Plant Nutrition (DSPN) at the Agriculture Research Institute, Tarnab, in the successful completion of this work.

Novelty Statement

This study is the first that illustrates how fertilizers, herbicides, and Parthenium biochar interact to boost soil health and maize phenology. The study finds that using Parthenium biochar as a resource improves grain quality, weed suppression, and nutrient use efficiency. This creative method promotes sustainable, circular agroecosystems and lessens reliance on herbicides.

Author’s Contribution

Muhmmad Ibrahim: Conducted the research performed data analysis, and prepare manuscript.

Haroon Khan: Supervised the research work, contributed in statistical analysis and interpretation of the results.

Bakhtiar Gul: Co-supervised research, and provided guidance in laboratory analysis.

Generative AI or AI-assisted technology statement

In writing this article, the author did not use the assistance of AI technology.

Conflict of interest

The authors have declared no competing interests.

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